* GCE Advanced Theoretical Chemistry Revision Notes on SHAPES of MOLECULES & IONS - bond angles (1) at Doc B's

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 Doc Brown's Chemistry

Part 1 The Shapes of Molecules and Ions related to their Electronic Structure

Revision notes for GCE Advanced Subsidiary Level AS Advanced Level A2 IB Revise AQA GCE Chemistry OCR GCE Chemistry Edexcel GCE Chemistry Salters Chemistry CIE Chemistry revising courses for pre-university students (equal to US grade 11 and grade 12 and Honours/honors level courses)

GCSE/IGCSE/AS Science-CHEMISTRTY bonding notes

PAGE INDEX: introduction * diatomic molecules * Shapes based on groups of electron pairs (bonding/non-bonding) : 2  3  4  5  6 * some more complex inorganic/organic molecules/ions * transition metal complexes * bond angles in organic molecules

Part 2 Appendix 1-4 on separate page: The shapes, with ox diagrams and bond angles, of some other molecules/ions of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and chlorine besides those on this page  The 'scribbles' will be replaced by neat diagrams eventually!

 

Introduction - electron pair repulsion theory and bond angle

The shape of a molecule is determined by the number of groups of electrons around the central atom. The 'groups' might be a non-bonding single electron, a non-bonding or bonding pair of electrons, a double pair of bonding electrons or triple pair of bonding electrons etc. The electron 'groupings' repel to minimise the potential energy of the system i.e. to make the A-B-C angle as wide as possible.

The dot and cross diagrams (ox) are presented in 'Lewis style'

In the diagrams the central atom is denoted by X and attached surrounding bonded atoms by Q. The bond angle is therefore based on angle between the atoms Q-X-Q.

This is known as The VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY MODEL (VSEPR theory, valence shell electron pair repulsion).

It has an important 'sub-rule' which affects the precise bond angle.

Any lone pairs of non-bonding electrons on the central atom X, are closer to X than bond pairs because there is no Q atom attracting/sharing the lone pair electron charge.

This will increase the repulsion between a lone pair of electrons on X and any other bonding/non-bonding on X.

The result is two-fold:

In terms of electron pair repulsion: lone pair - lone pair > lone pair  - bond pair > bond pair - bond pair.

As the lone pair - 'other pair' repulsion increases, the angle between these pairs increases, so the Q-X-Q angle will be slightly reduced compared to what might be expected from the 'simple' geometry of the shape (this is best illustrated by the sequence H2O, NH3 and CH4, see below)

underdeveloped test! on shapes and anglesTOP links

 

Diatomic molecules

These are not considered to have a 'shape', but useful ox diagram revision based on the out valence electrons

(c) doc b H-H e.g. hydrogen H2

(c) doc b

(c) doc b

H-Cl e.g. hydrogen chloride HCl, HX in general where X = halogen

(c) doc b

(c) doc b Cl-Cl e.g. chlorine Cl2, iodine(I) chloride ICl (iodine monochloride)TOP links

(c) doc bQ and X are both halogen atoms from group 7

  O=O (c) doc boxygen molecule

  

Two groups of electrons around the central atom

two bonding pairs of electrons or two double bond pairs - linear shape - bond angle 180o

(c) doc b

(c) doc b

gaseous beryllium hydride BeH2 (Q = H, X = Be)

(c) doc b

(c) doc b

gaseous beryllium halides BeCl2 (X = Be, Q = F, Cl, X = Be)

valence bond dot and cross diagrams O=C=O

(c) doc bcarbon dioxide CO2

  [H3N-Ag-NH3]+

transition metal complex of co-ordination number 2: e.g. the diamminesilver(I) ion, [Ag(NH3)2]+, where the :NH3 ammonia molecule acts as an electron pair donor to form the bond.TOP links N-Ag-N bond angle 180o.

  

Three groups of electrons around the central atom

(c) doc b

(c) doc b

electrons: two bond pairs, one lone pair

shape BENT, bond angle approximately 120o

any example?

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: two bond pairs, one lone pair

shape BENT, bond angle approximately 120o

any example? but for X=Q double bonds see sulphur dioxide

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: 3 bond pairs

shape TRIGONAL PLANAR: Q-X-Q bond angle exactly 120o: e.g. gaseous boron hydride BH3

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: 3 bond pairs

shape TRIGONAL PLANAR: bond angle, 120o: e.g. gaseous boron trifluoride BF3

(Q = F, Cl and X = B, Al for F)

TOP linksbut for X=Q double bonds see sulfur trioxide

COCl2 (g) carbonyl dichloride (many other commonly used names! e.g. carbonyl chloride, carbon oxychloride, carbon dichloride oxide, phosgene-gas warfare agent). The dot and cross diagram shows this is another example of three groups of bonding electrons (two single C-Cl bonds and a C=O double bond) giving a trigonal planar structure with Cl-C-Cl and O=C-Cl bond angles of 120o.

     

  

Four groups of electrons around the central atom

(see also sulfate and sulfite ions)

(c) doc b

(c) doc b

electrons: two bond pairs and two lone pairs

ANGULAR or BENT shape: e.g. hydrogen sulphide, H2S, or water H2O, i.e. H2X with H-X-H bond angle of approximately 109o and similarly ions like NH2-. Note: the exact H-O-H angle is 104.5o due to the extra repulsion of two lone pairs. (Q = H, X = O, S etc. in group 6)

(c) doc b(c) doc b

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: two bond pairs and two lone pairs

BENT shape: e.g. fluorine oxide (oxygen(II) fluoride)

F2O with bond F-O-F bond angle of approximately 109o

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: three bond pairs and one lone pair

PYRAMIDAL or TRIGONAL PYRAMID shape: e.g. ammonia NH3 with bond angle of approximately 109o. Note: the exact H-N-H angle is 107o due to the extra repulsion of one lone pair (for H-X-H angles: NH3 > H2O and < CH4).

(c) doc b(c) doc b

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: three bond pairs and one lone pair

PYRAMIDAL or TRIGONAL PYRAMID shape. e.g. nitrogen trifluoride/trichloride, NCl3, or phosphorus(III) fluoride/chloride (phosphorus trifluoride/trichloride), PF3/PCl3, with bond angles Q-X-Q of approximately 109o and similarly with ions like the oxonium ion H3O+

(Q = F, Cl etc. X = N, P etc.)

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: 4 bond pairs

TETRAHEDRAL shape: e.g. methane CH4, silicon hydride SiH4 with H-X-H bond angle of 109o and similarly ions like the ammonium ion NH4+. Note: No lone pair, no extra repulsion, no reduction in angle, therefore perfect tetrahedral angle (for H-X-H angles:  CH4 > NH3 > H2O).

(c) doc b(c) doc b(Q = H, X = C, Si, Ge etc. in group 4)

(c) doc b (c) doc b

electrons: 4 bond pairs

TETRAHEDRAL shape: e.g. tetrachloromethane CCl4 or [PCl4]+ with exact Cl-C-Cl and Cl-P-Cl bond angles of 109oTOP links

  

Five groups of electrons around the central atom

(c) doc b

valence bond dot and cross diagram

(c) doc b

electrons: 5 bond pairs

TRIGONAL BIPYRAMID shape: e.g. phosphorus(V) fluoride (phosphorus pentafluoride) PF5, gaseous phosphorus(V) chloride, PCl5, with bond angles 90o and 180o based on the vertical Q-X-Q bond and 120o based on the central trigonal planar arrangement.

Note that solid PCl5 has an ionic structure and is not a trigonal bipyramidal molecule - TOP linksa tetrahedral [PCl4]+ ion and an octahedral [PCl6]- ion.

  

Six groups of electrons around the central atom

(c) doc b

(c) doc b

electrons: 6 bond pairs

OCTAHEDRAL SHAPE: e.g. sulfur(VI) fluoride (sulphur hexafluoride molecule) SF6 or the [PCl6]- ion and many transition metal complexes (see below), with Q-X-Q bond angles of 90o and 180o.TOP links

  

More complex inorganic molecules/ions and organic molecules

These often are not given a particular shape name, but never-the-less, an appreciation of the 3D spatial arrangement is expected e.g.

(c) doc b

Ethane consists of two joined 'tetrahedral halves', with all C-C-H and H-C-H bond angles of 109o.

See below for more bond angle analysis of organic molecules.

 

H3N:=>BF3

would be like ethane above

Boron trifluoride (3 bonding pairs, 6 outer electrons) acts as a lone pair acceptor (Lewis acid) and ammonia (3 bond pairs) and lone pair which enables it to act as a Lewis base - a an electron pair donor. It donates the lone pair to the 4th 'vacant' boron orbital to form a sort of 'adduct' compound. Its shape is essentially the same as ethane, a sort of double tetrahedral with H-N-H, N-B-F and F-B-F bond angles of ~109o.

(c) doc b or (c) doc b

Benzene is a completely planar molecule, with all C-C-C or C-C-H bond angles of 120o.

valence bond dot and cross diagrams   TOP links

 

TRANSITION METAL COMPLEX IONS

COMPLEXES(c) doc b

The three examples below show cis/trans isomerism

(c) doc bcis/trans octahedral

(c) doc bcis/trans octahedral

(c) doc b cis/trans square planar

more details and examples on "Transition Metals" pages

All the bonds shown,__ or ...., are dative covalent, with lone electron pair donation by the ligand L, to the central metal ion i.e. L: (c) doc b Mn+ etc.TOP links

  

Shapes and bond angles of organic molecules

Most bond angles in organic chemistry can be accurately or approximately predicted using bond repulsion theory (with some notable exceptions at the end).

Two groups of bonding electrons around the 'middle' atom of the bond give an angle of 180o.

Alkynes have a single bond pair and a triple bond pair around the middle carbon.

e.g. the R-C-C angle in R-C(c) doc bC-R alkynes, ethyne H-C(c) doc bC-H has linear shape

Dienes with adjacent double bonds have two double bond pairs around the 'middle' atom.

e.g. the C-C-C angle in >C=C=C< e.g. in propa-1,2-diene and buta-1,2-diene.

Diazonium salts e.g. the C-N(c) doc bN: bond in diazonium cations like [C6H5-N(c) doc bN:]+ 

Three groups of electrons around the 'middle' atom of the bond give an angle of 120o.

Two single bond pairs and double bond pairs.

The H-C-H, C-C-H angles associated with the alkene group >C=C< which leads to a planar shape for ethene itself.

The angles associated with the carbonyl group >C=O e.g. (i) H-C=O, C-C=O in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids and derivatives and (ii) C-C(=O)-O, C-C(=O)-C  in carboxylic acids and their derivatives.

(i) RCHO, RCOR and (ii) RCOOH, RCOOR, RCOCl, RCONH2 etc.

Two 'averaged 1.5' bonds of the delocalised benzene ring and a single bond pair of the bond attaching an atom to the ring.

e.g. in benzene itself, all the -C-C-C- or -C-C-H bonds are 120o and is a completely planar molecule.

and in benzene derivatives C-C-X where X might be Cl, N (from NO2 or NH2), O (from phenol -OH or ether -OR) etc.

A single bond pair, double bond pairs and a lone pair (e.g. on the N atom, x-ref ammonia).

In diazo compounds R-N=N-R, the R-N=N bond angle is 1200.

Four groups of electrons around the 'middle' atom of the bond usually gives an angle of about 109o. The orbitals would point to the corners of a tetrahedron.

Four single bond pairs give all the C-C-C or H-C-H or C-C-H angles in most (see below) saturated systems e.g. alkanes, chloroalkanes etc..

Also the R-N-R angle in the quaternary ammonium salt ion [NR4]+.

Three single bond pairs and a lone pair (x-ref ammonia above).

e.g. the H-N-H, C-N-H bond angles in amines R-NH2, R-NH-R, :NR3 etc.

Two single bond pairs and two non-bonding lone pairs (x-ref water above).

e.g. the C-O-H angle in alcohols and phenols and the >C-O-C< angle in ethers and esters

Some significant exceptions to the above general rules.

Despite the four single bond pairs, the C-C-C bond angle in cyclopropane is a 'forced' 60o. and the H-C-H angle is over 1090, from a distorted 'tetrahedral' situation.

Despite the four single bond pairs, the C-C-C bond angle in cyclobutane is on face value a forced 90o and the H-C-H angle is over 1090. However there is evidence to suggest it oscillates between two bent conformers with an 'average' bond angle of ~109o.

For cyclopentane onwards, the ring is 'puckered' with C-C-C, C-C-H and H-C-H bond angles of ~109o.

TOP linksEXAMPLES analysed and summarised for you ...

but I suggest you sketch some out and mark on all the angles, see the end 'scribbles'

methanol alcohols and ether structure and naming (c) doc ball H-C-H, C-O-H and H-C-O angles ~109o

chloromethane (c) doc ball H-C-H and H-C-Cl angles ~109o tetrahedral shape

propane(c) doc b all H-C-H, C-C-H or C-C-C angles are 109o 

ethene(c) doc b (c) doc b

all H-C-H or H-C=C angles are 120o in the completely planar molecule of ethene

propene(c) doc b H-C-H 109o in the CH3- group, but the

H-C=C, C-C=C, C=C-H and =CH2 angles are 120o

propyne(c) doc b the H-C(c) doc bC and C(c) doc bC-C angles are 180o

and the (c) doc bC-C-H and H-C-H in -CH3 are 109o linear molecule shape

methylbenzene(c) doc b C-C-C in ring 120o and C-C-C(H3) off the ring 120o

but the C-C-H of the C-CH3 and the H-C-H in the -CH3 off the ring are 109o 

bromoethane(c) doc ball H-C-H, H-C-C, C-C-Br, H-C-Br angles are 109o 

ethanol(c) doc ball H-C-H, H-C-C, C-C-O, H-C-O, C-O-H angles are 109o 

methoxymethane(c) doc ball H-C-H, H-C-O, C-O-C angles are all 109o 

phenol(c) doc bC-C-C in ring 120, C-C-H of ring 120o and C-O-H off ring is 109o 

ethylamine(c) doc b all H-C-H, C-C-H, C-C-N and C-N-H angles are all 109o 

butanone (c) doc b H-C-C, H-C-H and (O=)C-C-C on right are all 109o 

and C-C=O on left, C-C(=O)-C and O=C-C on right are 120o 

methanoic acid(c) doc bH-C=O, H-C-O(-H) and O=C-O are 120o and C-O-H is 109o 

ethanamide (c) doc b  H-C-H, H-C-C, H-N-H and C-N-H are all 109o 

and C-C=O, C-C-N and O=C-N are 120o 

ethyl ethanoate (c) doc b  all H-C-H, O-C-C (right), H-C-C (left)

and C-C-H (right) are all 109o, and C-C=O, C-C-O (left) and O=C-O are 120o 

ethanoyl chloride (c) doc b  H-C-H and H-C-C are 109o 

and C-C=O, C-C-Cl and O=C-Cl are all 120o 

diazo dye (c) doc b all the C-C-C, C-C-H, C-N=N, C-C-N(=) bond angles

of/off the ring are all 120o but the C-O-H of the phenol group on the right is 109o.

the SCRIBBLES!(c) doc b

which will eventually be replaced by neater diagrams!


SEE ALSO Appendix 1-4 on separate page: The shapes, with ox diagrams and bond angles, of some other molecules/ions of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and chlorine besides those on this page and again the 'scribbles' will be replaced by neat diagrams eventually!

(german) Teil 1 Die Formen der Moleküle und Ionen in Bezug auf ihre elektronische Struktur Seitenindex: Einführung * zweiatomigen Molekülen * Shapes: basierend auf Gruppen von Elektronenpaaren (Kleben / non-bonding) 2 3 4 5 6 * einige komplexere anorganisch / organische Moleküle / Ionen * Übergangsmetallkomplexe * Bindungswinkel in organischen Molekülen Die Form eines Moleküls ist Atoms bestimmt durch die Anzahl der Gruppen von Elektronen um den zentralen. Die "Gruppen" könnten die eine nicht-bindenden einzelnes Elektron, einer Non-Bonding oder Kleben Paar von Elektronen, ein doppeltes Paar bindenden Elektronen-oder Dreifach-Paar von bindenden Elektronen etc. Das Elektron "Gruppierungen" abstoßen der Minimierung der potentiellen Energie System, dh um die ABC-Winkel so breit wie möglich Die Punkt-und Cross-Diagramme (ox) sind "präsentiert in" Lewis Stil In den Diagrammen ist das Zentralatom X gekennzeichnet durch und befestigt umliegenden Q. gebundene Atome durch The bond angle is therefore based on angle between the atoms QXQ. Der Bindungswinkel ist daher auf der Grundlage QXQ Winkel zwischen den Atomen. Dies ist bekannt als Abstoßung der Valenzschale Elektronenpaar REPULSION Theoriemodell (VSEPR-Theorie, Valenzschale Elektronenpaar). Er hat eine wichtige "sub-Regel", die Winkel wirkt sich auf die genaue Bindung. Jede freie Elektronenpaare der nicht-bindenden Elektronen am Zentralatom X, sind näher an X-Bindung als Paar, weil es keine Q-Atom anzieht / Austausch des freien Elektronenpaars Elektronenladung. Dies wird X. Erhöhung der Abstoßung zwischen einem einsamen Elektronenpaar an X und jede andere Bindung / nicht-Bindung auf Das Ergebnis ist zweierlei: In Bezug auf Elektronenpaar Abstoßung: Elektronenpaar - Elektronenpaar> Elektronenpaar - Bond Paar> Paar-Bindung - Bindung Paar. Als der einsame Paar - "andere Paar" Abstoßung erhöht, der Winkel zwischen diesen Paaren erhöht, sodass der Winkel wird QXQ Form der (leicht reduziert gegenüber der Geometrie zu erwarten, was sein könnte aus dem "einfachen" Dies wird am besten veranschaulicht durch die Reihenfolge H2O, NH3 und CH4, siehe unten) * (thai) เคมี ส่วนที่ 1 รูปร่างของโมเลกุลและไอออนที่เกี่ยวข้องกับโครงสร้างของ แนะนำ * อะตอมสองอะตอมโมเลกุล รูปร่าง * ขึ้นอยู่กับกลุ่มของคู่อิเล็กตรอน (พันธะ / พันธะไม่) : 2 3 4 5 6 * บางซับซ้อนนินทรีย์ / โมเลกุลอินทรีย์ประจุ / * เชิงซ้อนโลหะการเปลี่ยนแปลง * มุมพันธะในโมเลกุลอินทรีย์ ส่วนที่ 2 ภาคผนวก 1-4 ในหน้าแยก : รูปร่างด้วยไดอะแกรมวัวและมุมพันธะของบาง โมเลกุลอื่น ๆ ไอออน / คาร์บอน, ไนโตรเจน, กำมะถันและคลอรีน นอกเหนือจากที่ในที่สุดหน้านี้'scribbles'จะถูกแทนที่เรียบร้อยโดยไดอะแกรม ! * (indonesia) Doc Brown Kimia Bagian 1 Bentuk dari Molekul dan Ion berhubungan dengan mereka Elektronik Struktur Revisi catatan untuk GCE Advanced Level Anak Perusahaan Lanjutan Tingkat Revisi Kimia merevisi program untuk siswa pra-universitas (setara dengan 11 kelas AS dan kelas 12 dan Honours / program penghargaan tingkat) PAGE INDEKS: pengantar * diatomik molekul Bentuk * berdasarkan kelompok pasangan elektron (ikatan / non-ikatan): 2 3 4 5 6 * beberapa lebih kompleks anorganik / molekul organik / ion * kompleks logam transisi * ikatan sudut dalam molekul organik Bentuk molekul ditentukan oleh jumlah kelompok elektron di sekitar atom pusat. Pendahuluan - teori tolakan pasangan elektron dan sudut ikatan. The 'kelompok' mungkin non-ikatan elektron tunggal, sebuah ikatan-ikatan non atau sepasang elektron, sepasang elektron ikatan ganda atau tiga pasangan elektron ikatan elektron dll 'kelompok' menolak untuk memperkecil potensi energi yaitu sistem untuk membuat sudut ABC selebar mungkin. *

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(german) Teil 1 Die Formen der Moleküle und Ionen in Bezug auf ihre elektronische Struktur Seitenindex: Einführung * zweiatomigen Molekülen * Shapes: basierend auf Gruppen von Elektronenpaaren (Kleben / non-bonding) 2 3 4 5 6 * einige komplexere anorganisch / organische Moleküle / Ionen * Übergangsmetallkomplexe * Bindungswinkel in organischen Molekülen Die Form eines Moleküls ist Atoms bestimmt durch die Anzahl der Gruppen von Elektronen um den zentralen. Die "Gruppen" könnten die eine nicht-bindenden einzelnes Elektron, einer Non-Bonding oder Kleben Paar von Elektronen, ein doppeltes Paar bindenden Elektronen-oder Dreifach-Paar von bindenden Elektronen etc. Das Elektron "Gruppierungen" abstoßen der Minimierung der potentiellen Energie System, dh um die ABC-Winkel so breit wie möglich Die Punkt-und Cross-Diagramme (ox) sind "präsentiert in" Lewis Stil In den Diagrammen ist das Zentralatom X gekennzeichnet durch und befestigt umliegenden Q. gebundene Atome durch The bond angle is therefore based on angle between the atoms QXQ. Der Bindungswinkel ist daher auf der Grundlage QXQ Winkel zwischen den Atomen. Dies ist bekannt als Abstoßung der Valenzschale Elektronenpaar REPULSION Theoriemodell (VSEPR-Theorie, Valenzschale Elektronenpaar). Er hat eine wichtige "sub-Regel", die Winkel wirkt sich auf die genaue Bindung. Jede freie Elektronenpaare der nicht-bindenden Elektronen am Zentralatom X, sind näher an X-Bindung als Paar, weil es keine Q-Atom anzieht / Austausch des freien Elektronenpaars Elektronenladung. Dies wird X. Erhöhung der Abstoßung zwischen einem einsamen Elektronenpaar an X und jede andere Bindung / nicht-Bindung auf Das Ergebnis ist zweierlei: In Bezug auf Elektronenpaar Abstoßung: Elektronenpaar - Elektronenpaar> Elektronenpaar - Bond Paar> Paar-Bindung - Bindung Paar. Als der einsame Paar - "andere Paar" Abstoßung erhöht, der Winkel zwischen diesen Paaren erhöht, sodass der Winkel wird QXQ Form der (leicht reduziert gegenüber der Geometrie zu erwarten, was sein könnte aus dem "einfachen" Dies wird am besten veranschaulicht durch die Reihenfolge H2O, NH3 und CH4, siehe unten) * (thai) เคมี ส่วนที่ 1 รูปร่างของโมเลกุลและไอออนที่เกี่ยวข้องกับโครงสร้างของ แนะนำ * อะตอมสองอะตอมโมเลกุล รูปร่าง * ขึ้นอยู่กับกลุ่มของคู่อิเล็กตรอน (พันธะ / พันธะไม่) : 2 3 4 5 6 * บางซับซ้อนนินทรีย์ / โมเลกุลอินทรีย์ประจุ / * เชิงซ้อนโลหะการเปลี่ยนแปลง * มุมพันธะในโมเลกุลอินทรีย์ ส่วนที่ 2 ภาคผนวก 1-4 ในหน้าแยก : รูปร่างด้วยไดอะแกรมวัวและมุมพันธะของบาง โมเลกุลอื่น ๆ ไอออน / คาร์บอน, ไนโตรเจน, กำมะถันและคลอรีน นอกเหนือจากที่ในที่สุดหน้านี้'scribbles'จะถูกแทนที่เรียบร้อยโดยไดอะแกรม ! * (indonesia) Doc Brown Kimia Bagian 1 Bentuk dari Molekul dan Ion berhubungan dengan mereka Elektronik Struktur Revisi catatan untuk GCE Advanced Level Anak Perusahaan Lanjutan Tingkat Revisi Kimia merevisi program untuk siswa pra-universitas (setara dengan 11 kelas AS dan kelas 12 dan Honours / program penghargaan tingkat) PAGE INDEKS: pengantar * diatomik molekul Bentuk * berdasarkan kelompok pasangan elektron (ikatan / non-ikatan): 2 3 4 5 6 * beberapa lebih kompleks anorganik / molekul organik / ion * kompleks logam transisi * ikatan sudut dalam molekul organik Bentuk molekul ditentukan oleh jumlah kelompok elektron di sekitar atom pusat. Pendahuluan - teori tolakan pasangan elektron dan sudut ikatan. The 'kelompok' mungkin non-ikatan elektron tunggal, sebuah ikatan-ikatan non atau sepasang elektron, sepasang elektron ikatan ganda atau tiga pasangan elektron ikatan elektron dll 'kelompok' menolak untuk memperkecil potensi energi yaitu sistem untuk membuat sudut ABC selebar mungkin. *
DOC'S PICTURES - always travel with my camera! images and notes