(1) The spinal cord and the main parts of the brain and their function

The brain and spinal cord are all part of the central nervous system (CNS).

The brain is extraordinarily complex, consisting of billions of interconnected neurones.

Using these interconnected neurones pathways the brain is responsible for the control and coordination of all our complex behaviour - everything that happens to us, either consciously, unconsciously. Its the boss!

Research over many years has shown that different parts of the brain perform different functions.

VERY simplified diagram of the brain!

The brain can be considered to have several main regions

The cerebral cortex of the brain (in front and around the cerebrum - cerebral hemispheres)

The cerebrum is largest part of the brain, rather wrinkly in nature and split into two halves called cerebral hemispheres and initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature.

Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

The right hemisphere of the cerebrum controls muscles on the left side of your body and the left hemisphere controls the muscles on the right side of your body.

The highly folded cerebral cortex is found in the upper outer regions of the brain in front of the cerebrum and it dominates the mammalian brain both physically and functionally.

The cerebral cortex is associated with all the higher functions of the brain - in a very real way, it makes you who you are as an individual.

Each of the cerebral cortex lobes is responsible for processing different types of information. Collectively, your cerebral cortex is responsible for the higher-level processes of the human brain, including language, memory, reasoning, thought, learning, decision-making, emotion, intelligence, movement, vision and personality.

 

The cerebellum of the brain

The cerebellum is in the lower part of the brain near where it connects with the spinal cord.

The cerebellum is responsible for conscious movement - muscle coordination and posture-balance.

 

The medulla oblongata, part of the brain stem

The medulla oblongata is at the base of the brain where the brain connects with the spinal cord.

The medulla oblongata is the lower part of the brain stem.

The medulla oblongata controls unconscious activities like breathing and your heartbeat.

These are bodily functions you wouldn't normally think about - they just happen thanks to the medulla.

 

The hypothalamus of the brain

The hypothalamus, in the centre of the brain, is involved with keeping body temperature constant - so involved with aspects of homeostasis.

The hypothalamus produces hormones that control the functioning of the pituitary gland.

 

The pituitary gland in the brain - adjacent to the hypothalamus

The pituitary is a gland that produces many important hormones e.g. those involved in the menstrual cycle. It communicates with the hypothalamus (see above).

 

The spinal cord

The spinal cord connects the brain and the rest of the peripheral nervous system

For more details see notes on the  nervous system and reflex arc etc.

The brain stem links the cerebellum to the top of the spinal cord.

The spinal cord is built of a long column of nerve cells (neurones) that run from the base of the brain down through the spine of your body.

The spinal cord consists of tracts of ascending sensory nerve fibres and descending effector nerve fibres. These of course work together in negative feedback systems and reflex arcs - so any damage to the spinal cord has serious consequences.

At various points down the spine, neurones branch off and connect with all the rest of the parts of the body.

The spinal cord relays all the nerve pulses of information between the brain and the rest of the body.

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Key points - Summary of ideas

Based on the syllabus-specifications for students taking the AQA, Edexcel and OCR GCSE level biology examinations (~US grades 9-10).

Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain and Spinal Cord

The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.

It is responsible for processing and responding to sensory information, controlling bodily functions, and coordinating movements.

The CNS works closely with the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) to send and receive information throughout the body.

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The Brain

The brain is the main organ of the CNS, responsible for controlling and coordinating body functions. It consists of different regions, each with specific roles:

1. Cerebrum

• The largest part of the brain.

• Divided into two hemispheres: the left (controls logic, language, and analytical thinking) and right (controls creativity and spatial awareness).

• Controls voluntary actions, including movement, intelligence, memory, language, and emotions.

2. Cerebellum

• Located at the back of the brain, beneath the cerebrum.

• Responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture.

• Ensures smooth and precise movements by processing signals from muscles and joints.

3. Medulla Oblongata

• Found at the base of the brain, connecting to the spinal cord.

• Controls involuntary processes such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, and reflexes (e.g., sneezing, swallowing).

4. Hypothalamus

• Plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis.

• Regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, and the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.

• Controls the autonomic nervous system (involuntary actions).

5. Pituitary Gland

• Often called the "master gland" because it controls many hormonal functions.

• Releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and reproductive functions.

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The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a vital part of the CNS, acting as a communication highway between the brain and the rest of the body.

Functions of the Spinal Cord:

1. Transmits nerve signals between the brain and peripheral nerves.

2. Coordinates reflex actions (e.g., knee-jerk reflex).

3. Controls basic motor responses without needing direct input from the brain.

4. Processes sensory information such as pain, heat, and pressure.

Structure of the Spinal Cord:

• Protected by the vertebrae, which prevent damage.

• Contains grey matter (for processing information) and white matter (for transmitting signals).

• Spinal nerves emerge from different sections to control movement and sensation in different parts of the body.

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Summary Table of the brain

Brain Part	Function
Cerebrum	Controls voluntary actions, intelligence, memory, emotions.
Cerebellum	Coordinates movement, balance, posture.
Medulla Oblongata	Controls involuntary processes (breathing, heart rate, digestion).
Hypothalamus	Regulates homeostasis, including temperature, hunger, and hormone release.
Pituitary Gland	Releases hormones that control growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Spinal Cord	Transmits signals between brain and body, coordinates reflexes and motor responses.

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Summary of learning objectives and key words or phrases for how the brain works

Appreciate that the brain is very complex and different regions perform different functions.

Describe and explain the function of the cerebral cortex

Describe and explain the function of the medulla oblongata

Describe and explain the function of the cerebellum

Describe and explain the function of the brain stem

Describe and explain the function of the spinal cord

Describe and explain the function of the pituitary gland

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