 
ALKANES - structure and properties
Oil, useful products, environmental problems, introduction to
organic chemistry (GCSE level notes)
3. ALKANES – saturated hydrocarbons - physical & chemical properties
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INDEX of Advanced A Level revision notes
on the chemistry of ALKANES and the petrochemical
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3a.
The
structure and names of alkanes
3b
The physical properties
of alkanes
3c.
The various ways of representing the molecular structure of
alkanes
3d.
The
combustion reactions of Alkanes
3e.
Structural isomerism of alkanes
3f.
A closer look at the molecular structure of alkanes
- intermolecular forces and physical properties
3g.
The products of
reacting chlorine with alkanes
Revision notes on alkanes in
chemistry, physical properties of alkanes, uses of alkanes, chemical reactions of
alkanes, help when revising for AQA
GCSE chemistry, Edexcel GCSE chemistry, OCR GCSE gateway science chemistry,
OCR 21st century science chemistry GCSE 9-1 chemistry examinations.
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Brown's GCSE/IGCSE/O Level KS4 science CHEMISTRY Revision Notes
The
ALKANE series of saturated
hydrocarbons
- naming, bonding, structure, physical and chemical properties
3a.
The structure and names of alkanes
-
The principal source of alkanes is
crude oil and natural gas (see section 2.
OIL)
-
Alkanes
are a group of
hydrocarbon molecules in which all the carbon and hydrogen atoms are only
joined by single covalent bonds (e.g. C–H or C–C).
-
Carbon has an electronic combining
power (valency) of 4 and hydrogen a valency of 1. So in alkane molecules
carbon forms four bonds to hydrogen atoms or other carbon atoms.
Hydrogen can only form one single bond to a carbon atom.
-
Check this out with the
structural/displayed formula above.
-
Note that the name ends in
...ane eg methane, ethane, propane, butane
etc.
-
They are obtained from the
fractional distillation of crude oil.
-
A hydrocarbon, e.g.
an alkane, can only consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
-
Alkanes very useful
chemicals, particularly as fuels like
natural gas, petrol, diesel etc.
-
Alkanes are an example of
a homologous series of organic compounds.
-
A homologous series is a family of
compounds which have a lot in common, but their common features must be
carefully defined.
-
Features of members of a
homologous series as exemplified by alkanes:
-
They have a general formula, in this case
CnH2n+2
for alkanes where n =
number of carbon atoms in the alkane molecule (n = 1, 2, 3 etc.).
-
Alkanes differ by the addition of
an extra -CH2- unit from one member to the next
e.g.
-
Members of a homologous series
show a gradual variation in physical properties, e.g. with
increase in size of the carbon chain the boiling point gradually
rises from one alkane to the next (see table further down).
-
They have the same
functional group. However, unlike all other
homologous series of organic molecules, alkanes don't have a
functional group of characteristic atoms displaying a particular set of
chemical reactions like alkenes,
alcohols or
carboxylic acids,
which I'm sure you will study later. BUT, they must have, and do have, a
similar molecular structure, (lots of examples below) AND
this similarity in molecular structure gives the alkanes a set of similar
chemical properties e.g. similar chemical reactions.
-
This means you can not only predict the formula of an alkane, but you can predict the outcome of
its chemical reactions.
-
See section 8. for more on
homologous series and the variety of organic
compounds
-
Alkanes
are a family saturated hydrocarbons with the
general formula CnH2n+2 where n is the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule, so ..
-
From the general alkane formula you can deduce the
molecular formula for ANY alkane (that isn't a ring compound) given the
number of carbon atoms e.g.
-
when n = 1 you get CH4,
n = 2 gives C2H6, n = 3 gives C3H8,
-
then C4H10,
C5H12,
C6H14, C7H16,
C8H18 etc.
-
As with naming many organic
molecule series, eth.. means 2 carbon atoms in the chain,
prop... means 3 and but... means 4 etc. After
that the name is directly derived from the number of carbon atoms in the
chain eg pentane for 5 carbons, hexane for 6, heptane
for 7, octane for 8 etc. to match with the formulae quoted above.
-
Alkanes are known as saturated molecules because
other atoms cannot
add to them.
-
In other words, the carbon atoms are bonded to as many other atoms as they can.
-
Being saturated means the alkane
molecules have no C=C double bonds, only carbon–carbon single
bonds, and so alkanes combined with the maximum number of atoms i.e.
no atoms can add to it.
-
Compare alkanes with
unsaturated alkenes – unsaturated with a
double C=C bond.
-
For example, unlike
alkenes (with a double bond to which atoms can add across) they do NOT
react with, and decolourise, bromine water.
-
For the same reason,
alkanes cannot be converted into polymers like poly(ethene), made
from ethene.
TOP OF PAGE
and sub-index
3b.
The physical properties of alkanes
-
The relationship between molecular
mass and physical properties like boiling points
-
Various physical properties of the first twenty in the
alkane homologous series are
shown in the table below.
-
The first four are all colourless smelly highly flammable gases.
-
The larger alkanes are colourless
liquids and the bigger members of the series are white
waxy solids (20th onwards).
-
General formula CnH2n+2
where n = number of carbon atoms in the linear chain (na = not
applicable)
-
As the molecular mass of
an alkane
increases, quite clear trends in physical properties emerge ...
-
... the melting points and
boiling points of alkanes steadily increase
-
This is because the bigger
the alkane molecule, the greater the attractive intermolecular
bonding forces
(intermolecular bonding) between the alkane molecules - this increases
the kinetic energy the molecules need to overcome the these attractive
forces to change from liquid to gas - see the boiling point graph below.
-
-
The graph shows the boiling point of
alkanes from methane CH4 (boiling point -164oC/109
K) to tetradecane C14H30 (boiling point 254oC/527 K). [Remember K = oC + 273]
-
For alkane liquids, this
increase in intermolecular forces with increase in length of carbon
chain, means they also become less volatile, less flammable and more
sticky (more viscous, less runny).
-
... the density of the
alkane increases,
but all the liquid and solid alkane hydrocarbons float on water (density
1.00 g/cm3).
-
... alkanes become
more flammable e.g. more easily vaporised and ignited with a spark
-
this is measured by the
'flash point', this is the lowest temperature at which the alkane liquid
gives off sufficient vapour to ignite in air (you don't need to know
this for GCSE).
-
The first four gaseous
alkanes are very flammable and explosive in air!
n |
molecular formula (state at RTP) |
abbreviated structural formula |
name of alkane |
relative molecular mass Mr |
melting point temperature oC/K |
boiling point temperature oC/K |
flash point oC |
density g/cm3 |
1 |
CH4
(g) |
CH4 |
methane |
16.0 |
–182/91 |
–164/109 |
na |
0.466(l) |
2 |
C2H6
(g) |
CH3CH3 |
ethane |
30.1 |
–183/90 |
–88/185 |
na |
0.572(l) |
3 |
C3H8
(g) |
CH3CH2CH3 |
propane |
44.1 |
–190/83 |
–42/231 |
na |
0.585(l) |
4 |
C4H10
(g) |
CH3CH2CH2CH3 |
butane |
58.1 |
–138/135 |
0/273 |
na |
0.601(l) |
5 |
C5H12
(l) |
CH3(CH2)3CH3 |
pentane |
72.2 |
–130/143 |
36/309 |
–49 |
0.626 |
6 |
C6H14
(l) |
CH3(CH2)4CH3 |
hexane |
86.2 |
–95/178 |
69/342 |
–22 |
0.660 |
7 |
C7H16
(l) |
CH3(CH2)5CH3 |
heptane |
100.2 |
–90/183 |
99/372 |
–4 |
0.684 |
8 |
C8H18
(l) |
CH3(CH2)6CH3 |
octane |
114.2 |
–57/216 |
126/399 |
13 |
0.703 |
9 |
C9H20
(l) |
CH3(CH2)7CH3 |
nonane |
128.3 |
–51/222 |
151/424 |
31 |
0.718 |
10 |
C10H22
(l) |
CH3(CH2)8CH3 |
decane |
142.3 |
–30/243 |
174/447 |
46 |
0.730 |
11 |
C11H24
(l) |
CH3(CH2)9CH3 |
undecane |
156.3 |
–25/248 |
196/469 |
60 |
0.740 |
12 |
C12H26
(l) |
CH3(CH2)10CH3 |
dodecane |
170.3 |
–9/264 |
216/489 |
71 |
0.749 |
13 |
C13H28
(l) |
CH3(CH2)11CH3 |
tridecane |
184.4 |
–5/268 |
234/507 |
102 |
0.756 |
14 |
C14H30
(l) |
CH3(CH2)12CH3 |
tetradecane |
198.4 |
4/279 |
250/523 |
99 |
0.763 |
15 |
C15H32
(l) |
CH3(CH2)13CH3 |
pentadecane |
212.4 |
10/283 |
267/540 |
132 |
0.769 |
16 |
C16H34
(l) |
CH3(CH2)14CH3 |
hexadecane |
226.4 |
18/291 |
281/554 |
135 |
0.773 |
17 |
C17H36
(l) |
CH3(CH2)15CH3 |
heptadecane |
240.5 |
22/295 |
302/575 |
148 |
0.777 |
18 |
C18H38
(s) |
CH3(CH2)16CH3 |
octadecane |
254.5 |
28/301 |
326/599 |
165 |
0.777 |
19 |
C19H40
(s) |
CH3(CH2)17CH3 |
nonadecane |
268.5 |
31/304 |
330/603 |
168 |
0.786 |
20 |
C20H42
(s) |
CH3(CH2)18CH3 |
eicosane |
282.5 |
37/310 |
343/616 |
na |
0.789 |
n |
molecular formula |
abbreviated structural formula |
name of alkane |
relative molecular mass Mr |
melting point temperature oC/K |
boiling point temperature oC/K |
flash point oC |
density g/cm3 |
*** |
***************** |
************************ |
******************* |
************** |
K = oC + 273 |
K = oC + 273 |
********* |
*********** |
Note: (i) RTP = room temperature and
pressure i.e. 20oC and 1 atm/101 kPa
pressure.
(ii) The flash
point is the lowest temperature at which a
volatile substance evaporates to form an
ignitable-flammable mixture with air in the presence
of a source of ignition and continues burning after
the ignition source is removed. na = not applicable
to gaseous alkane
(iii) the use of parentheses
(brackets) to give, for long molecules like the higher
alkanes, a more convenient abbreviated formula.
e.g. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
heptane,
can be expressed as CH3(CH2)5CH3
So watch out for this style of
abbreviated formula
e.g. pentane can be written as CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3,
but, using brackets,
it can be written as CH3(CH2)3CH3
This style is particularly useful for
long molecules like decane CH3(CH2)8CH3
The physical
states of alkanes at room temperature ~ 20oC
From the melting point and
boiling point data in the table above, you can
work out the physical state of any alkane at a given
temperature.
From CH4 to C4H10
the first four are colourless gases at room
temperature (with a strong hydrocarbon odour -
'smell of gas').
From C5H12
to C16H34 are all
colourless liquids at room temperature.
From C17H36
onwards are all white waxy solids at room
temperature.
|
TOP OF PAGE
and sub-index
3c.
The various ways of representing the molecular structure of alkanes
The
principal source of alkane hydrocarbons is crude oil –
See section 2.
Fractional distillation of crude oil & uses of fractions
The
molecular structure of ALKANES, all the C–C and C–H bonds are single
covalent bonds
(more details lower down)
(1)
is the molecular formula: a summary of the totals of
each atom of each element in one molecule e.g. of an alkane.
(2)
is a 'shorthand' or 'condensed' version of the full alkane
structural formula (3).
(3a)
is called the structural formula or 2–D
displayed formula: it shows how all
the atoms are
linked by covalent bonds in the alkane molecule (the dashes —
represent bonds),
but only in 2–D, not the real shape.
(3a)
In a correct displayed formula
for the alkane (or any other molecule), all the atoms are clearly and individually shown AND dashes to represent the
covalent bonds between the atoms in the molecule. – for a single bond
in alkanes (C–C, C–H), or = for a double bond in
alkenes (C=C as well as C–C and C–H).
(3b)
Sometimes the atoms are just portrayed as
spheres, but NOT considered the proper displayed formula for a
molecule and such diagrams do not show the covalent bonds clearly.
(4a)
is either a 3D
version (3–D model)
of the
'displayed formula',
it gives some idea of the way the bonds are directed spatially and a better
impression of the shape of the molecule.
(4b)
is a '3D' 'ball and stick'
model representation of the structural formula (3) showing the
spatial arrangement of the atoms in the alkane.
(5)
Is called a
'space filling' model and gives
an idea of all the space used by the electrons around the nucleus and
the electrons between the nuclei forming the bond. |
Table showing the structure of the first
twelve ALKANES |
name of alkane |
(1=2) (3a)
(3b)
(4a)
(4b) |
methane
(main molecule in natural gas)
|
(1) (2) or
CH3CH3
(3a)
(3b)
(4a)
(4b)
(5)
you can't see the 6th H atom! |
ethane |
(1) (2)
or
CH3CH2CH3
(3a) (3b) (4a) |
propane
in bottled gas |
(1) (2)
or
CH3CH2CH2CH3
(3a)
(3b) |
butane
in bottled gas |
The full
displayed formula for the first five members of the homologous series of
ALKANES
These
diagrams show ALL the single covalent bonds (C-H and C-C) in alkane molecules
The
formulae can also be written in an abbreviated way as:
CH4, CH3CH3,
CH3CH2CH3, CH3CH2CH2CH3
and CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 |
The final examples are shown as the
full displayed
formula and the molecular formula of the alkane
pentane ball and stick model
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16 |
pentane, hexane and heptane in petrol |
C8H18
C9H20 |
octane and nonane |
C10H22
C11H24
C12H26
NOTE:
Although the
longer alkanes are drawn above in a linear way, in reality, the molecule is very flexible and can adopt all sorts of 'wiggly'
shapes.
See the diagram below as examples of the multitude of shapes the
alkane molecules can adopt! The backbone of carbon atoms of the alkane
molecules are quite flexible and the longer the chain the more flexible
or 'wiggly' they are!
|
decane, undecane and dodecane |
There are hundreds of different alkanes
known and many do not have a 'straight' chain of carbon atoms, but have
'branches', some are shown below, but don't bother about their names
(leave that for
A level!)
this last one with 8 carbon atoms is called 'isooctane' and is an ingredient of
petrol to ensure smoother combustion in car engines.
TOP OF PAGE
and sub-index
|
3d.
and 3e. MORE ON
THE CHEMISTRY OF ALKANES
They are not very reactive unless they are burned! or
brought into contact with very reactive molecules like chlorine
3d. The
combustion reactions of Alkanes
The
complete combustion of hydrocarbons e.g. an alkane in
excess
air
-
The diagram shows how to detect the
products of hydrocarbon combustion e.g. burning candle wax.
-
Candle wax is a long chain alkane hydrocarbon molecule which should burn
completely to carbon dioxide and water - however, the combustion is
inefficient and soot particles are formed, which are so hot they are
incandescent and give out light.
-
When hydrocarbons are burned in air a fast exothermic reaction occurs releasing heat and forming carbon dioxide and water
– their formation is an oxidation reaction.
-
The water pump draws the combustion gases
through the two chemical test systems in the big U tubes.
-
It is an oxidation reaction
because of oxygen atom gain by the carbon and hydrogen atoms of the
hydrocarbon molecules.
-
The carbon dioxide is chemically detected with
limewater – with which it forms a white precipitate (milky
appearance) of calcium carbonate.
-
The water is chemically detected either by
-
A physical test
for water is to measure its boiling point
(should be 100oC), you could test the colourless
liquid, if enough of it is collected.
You
can do some simple experiments to see how long a candle burns in various
sized beakers.
You can then plot a graph of burning times versus volume of
beaker.
The candle goes out when the oxygen falls to a low value.
The candle should burn longer in a larger beaker because
more oxygen from the air is available.
Equations for the complete combustion of a
hydrocarbon like an alkane
When
a hydrocarbon molecule (reactant) burns in an excess of air–oxygen
their are only two products of the reaction.
The carbon atoms are
oxidised on combining with oxygen to form carbon dioxide molecules, and the
hydrogen atoms are oxidised to water molecules ('hydrogen oxide').
Blue flames
indicate complete combustion releasing lots of heat energy, but smokey
yellow flames indicate incomplete combustion releasing less energy and
producing dirty sooty carbon (and sometimes deadly carbon monoxide too).
See
Pollution, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, what
makes a good fuel?, climate change–global warming
So complete oxidation = complete combustion
general word equation: alkane hydrocarbon + oxygen
===> carbon dioxide +
water
word equations e.g.
methane + oxygen ===> carbon dioxide + water
and the corresponding symbol equation
is
CH4(g) +
2O2(g) ===> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Note that one CO2 for every C, and one H2O for every
two H's in the hydrocarbon molecule.
In terms of displayed formula the
equation would be written as ...
... in which every individual atom is
shown and how it is bonded ('connected') with other atoms in the molecule.
All the dashes represent the covalent bonds between the atoms in the
molecules.
This is an example of an oxidation
reaction - atoms (carbon/hydrogen) have gained oxygen (become combined
with oxygen).
Another example is the complete combustion of
another alkane, propane ...
propane + oxygen ===> carbon
dioxide + water
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)
===> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
and in terms of displayed formula
and balancing numbers ...
and the above diagrams show how
the atoms have rearranged themselves in the reaction after the reactant
bonds are broken (C–H, O=O and C–C in ethane etc. below)) and the new bonds
formed in the products (C=O and O–H). Note the number of atoms of each
element must be the same on each side of the equation (1C, 4H's and 4 O's,
Law of Conservation of mass) and the products are different substances with
different properties compared to the reactants.
See Elements, Compounds and
Mixtures page for more on
writing and balancing
equations
for the alkanes ethane and butane
etc. the word and more awkward symbol equations are ...
(note the use of 3½
and
6½ in balancing equations is perfectly legitimate)
ethane + oxygen ===> carbon dioxide + water
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g)
===> 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
avoiding the 1/2
molecule! or not avoiding it!
C2H6(g) + 31/2O2(g)
===> 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
butane + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g)
===> 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(l)
or not avoiding not the
1/2 molecule !
C4H10(g) + 61/2O2(g)
===> 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)
and for pentane the equations are ...
pentane + oxygen ===> carbon dioxide + water
C5H12(l) +
8O2(g)
===> 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
See also
Calorimeter methods of determining energy changes
- burning fuels
For notes and equations on incomplete combustion see
... ...
Fossil fuel air pollution -
incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide & soot particulates
Uses of
propane gas C3H8 In the
UK propane gas is used from red coloured cylinders for domestic heating
and cooking. BUT, it is also
used in cutting equipment for the demolition and recycling of metal
structures. In the past
oxy-acetylene cutters were used, but the hydrocarbon acetylene, (now called ethyne,
C2H2), is a
very dangerous explosive gas and so propane, another hydrocarbon, is used instead -
as an
oxy-propane blow torch.
The oxygen is supplied in a separate cylinder, well
away from the propane cylinder for safety reasons!
The two gases are piped to the cutting tool where
they are mixed and ignited to give a powerful cutting torch -
illustrated below.
Quite a 'fireworks' display in the
end from: C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)
===> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) -
very exothermic !!!
TOP OF PAGE
and sub-index
3e. More on ALKANES
– saturated hydrocarbons
(some of these
sections may not be required by your GCSE syllabus)
3f.
A closer look at the molecular structure of alkanes - intermolecular forces
and physical properties
CONCEPT: The dotted lines represent the
weak
intermolecular bonding forces of attraction between the molecules.
The bigger the molecule, the more dotted line
'connections' there are, the bigger the intermolecular forces!
- As we have seen at the start of this page, for a homologous series the strength of intermolecular forces
(intermolecular bonding) increases as the carbon chain length
increases, exemplified by the alkanes illustrated above with 1-12 and 20
carbon atoms in the chain.
- This leads to a steady increase in melting point,
boiling point, density and, if liquid, the viscosity too (see the
alkanes data table above and graph in 3a).
- This
is because the attractive forces are a function of the potential
surface area–surface area contact between the molecules.
- As the chain length increases the
surface–surface contact over which the intermolecular forces operate must increase per molecule.
- This means more kinetic energy is needed for the
alkanes to boil and change from a liquid to a gas.
- For example in the series ...
- From methane ... ethane ...
propane ... petrol ... oils ... grease ... waxes etc. the
melting point/boiling points rise and so does the viscosity (stickiness!
less runny, more sticky) as the
carbon chain length of the alkane increases.
- This trend also indicated by the change
in alkanes
from gases to
liquids to solids ...
-
- ... illustrated above by the boiling
points of alkane hydrocarbons obtained from crude oil.
- See 2.
Uses of Oil Products page for
more details – the use of alkanes is very strongly linked to their
physical properties.
- A closer
look at the
chemical bonding in alkane molecules - dot and cross diagrams
- Alkanes are relatively small molecules in
which all the chemical bonds are covalent bonds.
- All the bonds in alkane molecules are single
bonds i.e. C–C carbon – carbon or single C–H carbon – hydrogen bonds.
- Each carbon atom forms four single bonds and
hydrogen atoms form one single bond.
- All single covalent bonds are formed by sharing a
pair of electrons e.g. one from each of a carbon atom and a hydrogen atom,
or two carbon atoms contributing (sharing) an electron each to the covalent
bond.
- Four
hydrogen
atoms (1 outer electron) and one
carbon atom
(four outer electrons) combine to form methane
so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically like helium (full outer
shell of 2 electrons) and the carbon atom becomes like neon
(with a full outer shell of 8 electrons, the two inner electrons of carbon are
not shown).
-
or
the alkane methane
- Similarly six hydrogen atoms combine with
two carbon atoms to form the ethane molecule.
-
or
the alkane ethane
- The only difference with ethane (and the rest of
the alkanes) is the presence of the carbon - carbon bond, but you are
still making the stable outer octet of electrons around each carbon
atom.
- More GCSE notes on
molecules and covalent bonding
TOP OF PAGE
and sub-index
3g. CHLOROALKANES
(halogenoalkanes) - the products of reacting chlorine with alkanes
- Alkanes are
usually not very reactive unless burned!
BUT they will react with reactive chemicals like chlorine
when heated or subjected to uv light to form chlorinated hydrocarbons.
- Despite the reactivity of chlorine you
still need something extra activation energy to initiate the
reaction.
- A substitution reaction occurs
and a chloroalkane is formed e.g.
- a hydrogen is swapped for a chlorine
and the hydrogen combines with a chlorine atom
- (i) methane + chlorine ==>
chloromethane +
hydrogen chloride
-
CH4 + Cl2
==-> CH3Cl + HCl
-
+ Cl2
===>
+ HCl
- (ii) ethane + chlorine ==>
chloroethane +
hydrogen chloride
-
C2H6 + Cl2
===> C2H5Cl + HCl
-
+ Cl2 ==>
+ HCl
- Chloromethane and chloroethane are gases
at room temperature, but bigger chloroalkane molecules are useful
solvents in the laboratory or industry but they are still quite volatile
and chlorohydrocarbon vapours can be
harmful if breathed in.
INDEX of Advanced A
Level revision notes on the chemistry of HALOGENOALKANES (haloalkanes) |
|
GCSE/IGCSE/O Level Oil Products & Organic Chemistry INDEX PAGE
ALL my Advanced
A Level Organic Chemistry revision notes

A Level Notes on the structure & naming of ALKANES
Multiple Choice Quizzes and Worksheets
KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE m/c QUIZ on Oil Products
(easier–foundation–level)
KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE m/c QUIZ on Oil Products
(harder–higher–level)
KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE m/c QUIZ on other aspects of Organic Chemistry
and
3 linked easy Oil Products gap–fill quiz worksheets
ALSO gap–fill ('word–fill') exercises
originally written for ...
... AQA GCSE Science
Useful products from
crude oil AND
Oil, Hydrocarbons
& Cracking
etc.
... OCR 21st C GCSE Science
Worksheet gap–fill C1.1c Air
pollutants etc ...
... Edexcel GCSE Science
Crude Oil and its Fractional distillation
etc ...
... each set are interlinked, so
clicking on one of the above leads to a sequence of several quizzes
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Phil Brown 2000+. All copyrights reserved on revision notes, images,
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14-16
gcse organic chemistry,
revision study notes for 14-16 school chemistry AQA Edexcel OCR IGCSE/GCSE
9-1 chemistry science topics modules for studying the chemistry of
ALKANES, examples of saturated hydrocarbon molecules, molecular structure,
the uses of alkanes, chemical properties of alkanes, reactions of alkanes,
complete combustion of alkanes, burning alkanes as useful fuels like
methane, reaction of alkanes methane CH4 and ethane C2H6 with chlorine
C3H8, butane C4H10 gcse chemistry revision notes igcse revising KS4 science
INDEX of Advanced A Level revision notes
on the chemistry of ALKANES and the petrochemical
industry
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