*

(3) Why do we receive light from stars? How do we analyse this light?

Reminders from a simple optics experiment with a prism illustrated above.

When white light from a luminous source is passed through a triangular prism (or diffraction grating) the different wavelengths (and frequencies) of the electromagnetic radiation are dispersed because their angle of refraction differs. Think of the source of white light as a distant star or galaxy.

However, with stars, although the light seems 'white' certain frequencies are more strongly observed than others. This is illustrated by the emission spectral lines (specific frequencies) observed for elements, each of which has its own characteristic pattern - illustrated below.

• How do we gather evidence for an expanding universe?
• If the atoms of an element are heated to a very high temperature eg in a star they emit light of a specific set of frequencies (or wavelengths), called the emission spectrum of an element.
• These are all due to electronic changes in the atoms, the electrons are excited at high temperatures and then lose energy by emitting energy as photons of light.
• These emitted frequencies can be analysed with a diffraction grating or glass prism and recorded on a photographic plate or digital camera. This is an example of an instrumental chemical analysis called spectroscopy and is performed using an instrument called an optical spectrometer.

  • Some schools may have a simple mini version of a spectrometer, called a spectroscope, for you to look through, to give you an idea of what spectrum looks like eg looking at flame colours by heating metals salts in a roaring bunsen flame.

  • This type of optical spectroscopy producing emission spectra or absorption spectra has enabled scientists to discover new elements in the past and today identify elements in distant stars and galaxies. The alkali metals caesium (cesium) and rubidium were discovered by observation of their line spectrum and helium identified from spectral observation of our Sun (our nearest star!).
• Each emission line spectra is unique for each element and so offers a different pattern of lines i.e. a 'spectral fingerprint' by which to identify any element in the periodic table .e.g. the diagram on the above right shows some of the visible emission line spectra for the elements hydrogen, helium, neon, sodium and mercury.
• As well as emission spectra you can also observe an absorption spectrum - this provides better evidence for the expanding universe theory than emission spectra.

• The prominent vertical black lines are where the light from hot hydrogen atoms has been absorbed by the gases of the star.

  • They are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. in the visible part of the emission spectrum.

• As we have seen, stars are so hot that the atoms of the elements are in a gaseous state and due to electronic changes in these hot atoms, but, certain specific frequencies of visible light emitted can be reabsorbed by atoms of the same element.

• This means certain frequencies will be 'missing' and not be observed at all as a coloured line.

• Therefore, when you examine the visible light from distant stars, you get black lines where that particular frequency has been absorbed by atoms ie that specific visible light frequency is missing.

• The resulting 'picture', obtained by using an instrument called a spectrometer, is called the absorption spectrum, based on the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• Its just like the emission spectrum line pattern because the frequencies involved are identical, BUT no colour!

• In the diagram, I've tried to illustrate the idea using the spectral lines of the element hydrogen.

• Hydrogen is the most abundant element in stars, but all the other elements absorb visible light waves, so the real absorption spectrum is much more complicated, but my diagram will do here to teach you the 'red shift' idea described in Part 4!

  • In the hydrogen spectrum diagram above, the first two lines are red and green with lots of others in the blue-indigo-violet region of the visible spectrum.

  • This is the pattern you observe when examining hydrogen gas on Earth in the laboratory or the hydrogen in the Sun.

  • You can analyse the spectral data for helium, its more complex, BUT, shows the same red shift pattern i.e. characteristic absorption spectrum lines are shifted to lower frequencies, longer wavelengths.

  • We will now combine the ideas from parts 2. and 3. to explain the 'red-shift' and its significance of our understanding of universe - its origin and age in Part 4.