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 Doc Brown's Chemistry  Revising Organic Chemistry

 A summary guide to the Molecular Structure and Naming-Nomenclature of Functional Groups and Homologous Series in Organic Chemistry

Examples of functional groups, homologous series, general formula, displayed formula, graphic formula, molecular formula, skeletal formula, structural formula, empirical formula of molecules etc. are all explained with links to more examples of structure and naming and quizzes and reaction equations, reaction conditions and mechanisms.

Revision notes for GCE Advanced Subsidiary Level AS Advanced Level A2 IB Revise AQA GCE Chemistry OCR GCE Chemistry Edexcel GCE Chemistry Salters Chemistry CIE Chemistry revising courses for pre-university students (equal to US grade 11 and grade 12 and Honours/honors level courses)

 EMAIL query?comment  *  organic qualitative analysis identifying functional group tests *

 m/c functional group recognition quiz * The shapes of molecules - bond angles in organic molecules


A functional group is an atom or combination of atoms which gives an organic molecule its distinctive and characteristic chemistry. The term 'functional' group is linked to the concept of a homologous series. A homologous series is a group of molecules with the same general formula and the same functional group. They have similar physical and chemical properties (albeit with trends e.g. increasing boiling point with increasing carbon chain length). The terms higher/lower refer to a larger/smaller or longer/shorter carbon chain.

Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Aromatics-arenes, Halogenoalkanes, Alcohols (prim/sec/tert), Phenols, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic acids, Acid chlorides, Acid Anhydrides, Amides, Esters, Nitriles, Amines (prim/tert/sec), Quaternary ammonium salts, Nitro-aromatics, Diazonium salts and dyes, Sulphonic (sulfonic) acids,  and more examples, due to the variety possible, of Aromatic Compounds and Organic Nitrogen Compounds on separate web pages.

Other links: Organic Reaction Mechanisms


Note on structure 'styles' of representation


An empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms in a compound as found by experiment i.e. chemical analysis. It gives no structural information and may or may not be the same as the molecular formula e.g. CH4 is both the empirical formula and the molecular formula of methane. However, the molecular formula of the butane molecule is C4H10 but its empirical formula is C2H5. The molecular formula of a glucose sugar molecule is C6H12O6 but its empirical formula is only CH2O !


A molecular formula e.g. C3H6O2, gives a summary of all the atoms in the molecule, but gives no information on structure.


A structural formula - minimal/abbreviated/shortened e.g. (c) doc bor(c) doc bgives a 'limited' structure of a molecule but unambiguous in terms of interpreting ALL atom-atom links and no/some individual bonds may be shown.


A structural formula - full/displayed/graphical e.g. (c) doc bwhere all the individual atoms and bonds are shown. However it can be acceptable to show some side-chain groups in an abbreviated form e.g. methylpropane

where the side-chain methyl group may be written in the abbreviated form, but take car in exams!


A structural formula with full 3D spatial representation e.g. (c) doc bwhich shows the shape of the molecule and implies bond angles (in this case all are 109o).


A skeletal formula e.g. (c) doc bin which no H atoms bonded to carbon atoms are shown, the lines represent either carbon-carbon bonds (single, double or triple), but other lines are needed to show bonds to other atoms which are NOT carbon or hydrogen e.g. C-Cl in (c) doc band hydrogen atoms are shown if they are bonded to non-carbon atoms e.g. the -OH in(c) doc b.


A general formula sums up the formulae a series of compounds e.g. a homologous series of chemically similar compounds with closely related formulae e.g. the only difference may be more/less -CH2- groupings in the carbon longest chain. There are many examples quoted throughout the rest of this page in the style CxHyOz etc. where x, y and z are variables like 1, 2, 3 etc. but they related for a particular homologous series e.g. for saturated non cyclo alkanes the general formula is

CnH2n+2 for alkanes, so that n=1 generates the formula for methane CH4 and n=5 generates the formula for pentane C5H12 etc. and .....

CnH2n+1COOH is the general formula for monocarboxylic acids, so that n=0 generates the formula for methanoic acid HCOOH and n=4 generates the formula for pentanoic acid CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH (so do not assume n always indicates the total carbon atoms in a molecule!).

However in all cases, the IUPAC systematic name is derived from the longest carbon chain, so both meth... (for one carbon) and pent... (for five carbons) occur in the names of the examples above.


Associated links other than those given for each homologous series below:

  1. Notes on intermolecular forces between organic molecules and their effect on boiling point for various homolgous series, includes comparitive boiling point plots

  2. Molecule shapes and bond angles

  3. Covalent bonding - basic notes

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FUNCTIONAL GROUPS and HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

nomenclature, structure and representation in pictures-graphics


ALKANES or cycloalkanes HYDROCARBONS (saturated)

ANE, e.g. ALKANES, saturated hydrocarbons i.e. no double or triple bonds.

They can be linear, branched, cyclo, substituted etc. (see later - haloalkanes etc.) …

 (c) doc bbutane,(c) doc bpentylcyclohexane,(c) doc bcyclopropane

(c) doc b2,2-dimethylpropane,(c) doc b2,2,3-trimethylbutane

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+2 for non-cyclo alkanes (n=1,2,3 etc.)

and CnH2n for cycloalkanes (n=3,4,5 etc.) isomeric with non-cyclo alkenes

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of alkanes

Multiple choice Quiz on naming alkanes * Type in an alkane name Quiz

Notes on selected reactions of alkanes from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

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ALKENE HYDROCARBONS (unsaturated)

 …ENE, ALKENES, unsaturated hydrocarbons with a carbon=carbon C=C double bond functional group (ene)

They can have more than one C=C, be linear, branched, cyclo …

(c) doc bpent-1-ene,(c) doc b3-ethylpent-1-ene,(c) doc bcyclobuta-1,3-diene

(c) doc bor(c) doc bbuta-1,3-diene(c) doc bcyclohexene

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of alkenes

Multiple choice Quiz on naming alkenes * Type in an alkene name Quiz

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n for non-cyclo alkenes (n=2,3 etc. with one C=C bond)  isomeric with cycloalkanes

and CnH2n-2 for cycloalkenes (n=3,4,5 etc., and with one C=C bond)

Notes on selected reactions of alkenes from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

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ALKYNE HYDROCARBONS (unsaturated)

 YNE e.g. ALKYNES, unsaturated hydrocarbons with a CC triple bond functional group (yne) e.g.

(c) doc b ethyne, and  (c) doc b propyne

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n-2 for non-cyclo alkynes (with one triple bond)

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AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (unsaturated)

 'ARENES' are aromatic hydrocarbons with at least one benzene ring functional group e.g. …

(c) doc bor(c) doc bbenzene,(c) doc bor(c) doc bmethylbenzene

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of aromatic compounds

further Notes and examples of aromatics  * Type in an alkane name Quiz

Notes on selected reactions of aromatic compounds (arenes) from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

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aliphatic/aromatic HALOGEN COMPOUNDS

Aliphatic: HALO… e.g. HALOGENOALKANES (HALOALKANES)

C-X halogen functional group where X = F fluoro…, Cl chloro.., Br bromo… or I iodo…

X is named as a prefix substituent in any type of organic molecule from alkanes to carboxylic acids.

(c) doc bchloromethane,(c) doc bbromoethane, (c) doc bdichlorodifluoromethane

(c) doc b1-bromo-1-chlorobutane(c) doc biodocyclohexane

(c) doc b1,2-dibromocyclopentane,(c) doc bchloromethylbenzene

or phenylchloromethane, which can also be classified as an aromatic compound

BUT the halogen is not attached directly to the benzene ring so it is not an aryl halide)

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1X for non-cyclo saturated halogenoalkanes (X=F,Cl,Br,I and n=1,2,3 etc.)

and CnH2n-1X for saturated cyclohalogenoalkanes (n=3,4,5 etc. with one C-X bond)

  • A sub-CLASSIFICATION based on structural differences, which can have chemical consequences on e.g. rate of reaction or products formed in a reaction.

    • Halogenoalkanes are classified according to the atoms/groups attached to the carbon of the halogen atom X.

    • Primary halogenoalkanes have the structure R-CH2-X, R = H, alkyl, aryl etc. i.e. apart from chloromethane they have one alkyl/aryl group attached to the C of the C-X group.

      • e.g. chloroethane CH3CH2Cl

    • Secondary halogenoalkanes have the structure R2CH-X, R = alkyl or aryl etc. i.e. they have two alkyl/aryl groups attached to the C of the C-X group.

      • e.g. 2-bromobutane CH3CHBrCH2CH3 

    • Tertiary halogenoalkanes have the structure R3C-X, R = alkyl or aryl etc. i.e. they have three alkyl/aryl groups attached to the C of the C-X group.

      • e.g. 2-iodo-2-methylpropane (CH3)3CI

further Notes and examples of the structure, classification and nomenclature of primary, secondary and tertiary haloalkanes - 3 pages

Multiple choice Quiz on naming haloalkanes * Type in a haloalkane name Quiz

Notes on selected reactions of halogenoalkanes (haloalkanes) from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

NOTE: Aromatic HALO ... ARENES (aromatic halogen compounds) have the halogen atom directly attached to the benzene ring.

(c) doc bchlorobenzene,(c) doc b1,4-dichlorobenzene,(c) doc bchloro-2-methylbenzene

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ALCOHOLS (aliphatic, alkanols) and PHENOLS (aromatic)

Aliphatic OH hydroxy functional group (ol) e.g. ALIPHATIC ALCOHOLS. Aliphatic alcohols are classified as primary, secondary and tertiary.

You can have diols, triols etc, with 2,3 etc, OH groups.

If there is a 'higher ranking' functional group in the molecule the substituent OH is called by the prefix 'hydroxy' see * examples.

Primary aliphatic alcohols R-OH where R is alkyl

(c) doc bethanol,(c) doc bethan-1,2-diol

(c) doc bor(c) doc b3-methylbutan-1-ol

(c) doc b4-hydroxybutanoic acid*

Secondary aliphatic alcohols R-CH(OH)-R' where R or R' are both alkyl (or aryl):

(c) doc bpropan-2-ol,(c) doc bbutan-2-ol,(c) doc bcyclohexanol,(c) doc bpentan-3-ol

(c) doc bcyclopentanol(c) doc b2-hydroxybutanoic acid*

Tertiary aliphatic alcohols RR'R"C-OH where R,R' or R" are all alkyl (or aryl):

(c) doc bor(c) doc b2-methylpropan-2-ol,(c) doc b2-methylbutan-2-ol

(c) doc b or (c) doc b 3-methylpentan-1-ol

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1OH for saturated non-cyclic aliphatic alcohols (n=1,2,3 etc.)

or the less informative CnH2n+2O isomeric with aliphatic non-cyclo ethers

and CnH2n-1OH for cycloalcohols (n=3,4,5 etc. with one C-OH)

Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of aliphatic alcohols/alkanols

**further Notes and examples on types of alcohols and phenols

** linked to notes on oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids

 Multiple choice Quiz on naming alcohols * Type in an alcohol name Quiz

Notes on selected reactions of alcohols from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

AROMATIC PHENOLS ROH, R=aryl only,  when the -OH functional group is attached directly to a benzene ring the molecule is called a phenol.

If there is a 'higher ranking' functional group in the molecule the substituent OH is called by the prefix 'hydroxy' see * example.

(c) doc bor(c) doc bor(c) doc bphenol,(c) doc b2-chlorophenol,(c) doc b3-methylphenol

(c) doc b2,5-dichloro-4-methylphenol,(c) doc b3-hydroxybenzoic acid*

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ETHERS

Alkyl/arylOXY…alkane/arene e.g. ETHERS which have the C-O-C linkage.

The smaller carbon chain with the oxygen atom, is given the prefix in the name alkyl/aryl..oxyane

(alkyl-O- groups like CH3-O- are called alkoxy groups).

(c) doc bmethoxymethane,(c) doc bmethoxyethane,(c) doc b2-ethoxypropane

(c) doc bethoxyethane,(c) doc b2-methoxypropane,

Exemplar homologous series: CxH2x+1-O-CyH2y+1 for saturated non-cyclo ethers (x or y =1,2,3 etc.)

or the less informative CnH2n+2O (n=2,3,4 etc.)  isomeric with non-cyclo aliphatic alcohols

or CnH2nO for cycloethers (n=2,3,4 etc. with one C-O-C linkage, non shown at the moment)

further Notes and examples of ethers and isomeric alcohols

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ALDEHYDES and KETONES (a group of carbonyl compounds)

 …AL e.g. ALDEHYDES have the -CHO functional group at the end of a carbon chain e.g.

(c) doc bethanal,(c) doc bpropanal,(c) doc bor(c) doc b2-methylpropanal

(c) doc bbutanal,(c) doc bpentanal,(c) doc b2-methylbutanal

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1CHO for aliphatic aldehydes (n=0,1,2 etc.)

or the less in formative CmH2mO (m=1,2,3 etc.) isomeric with ketones and saturated cyclic aliphatic ethers

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of aldehydes

 multiple choice Quiz on naming aldehydes/ketones * type in name Quiz on naming aldehydes/ ketones

Notes on selected reactions of aldehydes/ketones from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

ONE e.g. KETONES have the C-CO-C functional group linkage within the carbon chain:

(c) doc bpropanone,(c) doc bor(c) doc bbutanone,(c) doc bpentan-2-one

(c) doc b  or  (c) doc b   pentan-3-one

Exemplar homologous series: CxHxn+1-CO-CyH2y+1 for aliphatic ketones (x or y = 1,2,3, etc.)

or the less informative CnH2nO (n=3,4,5 etc.)  isomeric with aldehydes and saturated cyclic aliphatic ethers

 further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of ketones

 multiple choice Quiz on naming aldehydes/ ketones * type in name Quiz on naming aldehydes/ ketones

Notes on selected reactions of aldehydes/ketones from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

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CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

 OIC ACID e.g. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS with the -COOH functional group, substituents quoted as prefixes (…dioic if 2 -COOH groups) e.g.

aliphatic carboxylic acids

(c) doc bmethanoic acid,(c) doc bpropanoic acid,(c) doc b*aminoethanoic acid

(c) doc b2-methylpropanoic acid,(c) doc b *2-hydroxybutanoic acid

(c) doc bpentanoic acid(c) doc b* ethanedioic acid

* examples of a dicarboxylic acids

If there is a 'higher ranking' functional group in the molecule the

substituent OH/NH2 is called by the prefix 'hydroxy/amino see * examples.

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1COOH for saturated aliphatic mono carboxylic acids (n=0,1,2,3 etc.)

or the less informative CnH2nO2 (n=1,2,3,4 etc.) isomeric with aliphatic esters

aromatic carboxylic acids (-COOH directly attached to the ring)

(c) doc b * 3-hydroxybenzoic acid,(c) doc b2-ethanoylhydroxybenzoic acid (Aspirin!)

(c) doc b2-chlorobenzoic acid,   (c) doc b* benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid

(sometimes carboxylic rather than oic is used e.g. the dicarboxylic acids of benzene)

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of carboxylic acids and their derivatives

 m/c QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives * Type in name QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives

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ACID ANHYDRIDES

 OIC ANHYDRIDE e.g. CARBOXYLIC ACID ANHYDRIDES with the RCO-O-RCO linkage e.g.

(c) doc bor(c) doc bethanoic anhydride

(c) doc bor(c) doc bpentanoic anhydride

Exemplar homologous series: (CnH2n+1CO)2O derived from aliphatic mono carboxylic acids (n=2,3 etc.)

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of carboxylic acids and their derivatives

m/c QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives * Type in name QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives

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ACID or ACYL CHLORIDES

 OYL CHLORIDE e.g. CARBOXYLIC ACID or ACYL CHLORIDES with the -COCl functional group e.g.

(c) doc bor(c) doc bpropanoyl chloride, (c) doc bbutanoyl chloride

(c) doc bor(c) doc bpentanoyl chloride,(c) doc bbenzoyl chloride

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1COCl derived from aliphatic mono carboxylic acid chlorides (n=1,2,3 etc.)

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of carboxylic acids and their derivatives

m/c QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives * Type in name QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives

Notes on selected reactions of acid/acyl chlorides from a mechanistic point of view but giving general equations and reaction conditions too

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ACID AMIDES

 AMIDE e.g. CARBOXYLIC ACID AMIDES with the -CONH2 functional group e.g.

(c) doc bor(c) doc bethanamide,(c) doc bpropanamide

(c) doc bbutanamide,(c) doc bpentanamide,(c) doc bbenzamide

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1CONH2 derived from aliphatic mono carboxylic acid amides (n=0,1,2,3 etc.)

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of carboxylic acids and their derivatives

and also other organic nitrogen compounds

m/c QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives * Type in name QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives

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ESTERS

 alkyl/arylOATE e.g. ESTERS of CARBOXYLIC ACIDS derived from ALCOHOLS or PHENOLS.

Esters have the -COOC- linkage:

(c) doc bmethyl methanoate(c) doc bpropyl propanoate

(c) doc bethyl propanoate(c) doc bethyl benzoate

Exemplar homologous series: CxH2x+1-COO-CyH2y+1 simple saturated aliphatic esters (x=0,1,2, etc. and y=1,2,3 etc.)

or the less informative CnH2nO2 (n=2,3,4 etc.) isomeric with carboxylic acids

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of carboxylic acids and their derivatives

m/c QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives * Type in name QUIZ on naming RCOOH acids/derivatives

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NITRILES

The nitrile functional group consists of a carbon to nitrogen triple bond.

The name is based on the longest carbon chain, including the C of the nitrile group e.g.

methanenitrile, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

ethanenitrile, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

propanenitrile, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1CN derived from aliphatic mono carboxylic acid chlorides (n=0,1,2,3 etc.)

further Notes and examples of the structure and nomenclature of carboxylic acids and their derivatives

and also other organic nitrogen compounds

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AMINES

PRIMARY AMINES have two hydrogen atoms and one alkyl or aryl group attached to the nitrogen to form the amine or amino group -NH2.

ALIPHATIC: methylamine (aminomethane), (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

ethylamine (aminoethane), (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

Exemplar homologous series: CnH2n+1NH2 for saturated mono primary amines (n=1,2,3 etc.)

SECONDARY AMINES have one hydrogen atom and two alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen

ALIPHATIC: dimethylamine, (c) doc b,(c) doc b, (c) doc b

ethylmethylamine, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

diethylamine, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

TERTIARY AMINES have no hydrogen atom and three alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen

ALIPHATIC: trimethylamine, (c) doc b ,(c) doc b

ethyldimethylamine, (c) doc b, (c) doc b

diethylmethylamine, (c) doc b ,(c) doc b

further examples of the structure and nomenclature of organic nitrogen compounds

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QUATERNARY AMMONIUM SALTS

If all for hydrogens of an ammonium ion are replaced with alkyl or aryl groups then an ionic quaternary salt is formed.

e.g. the simplest is tetramethylammonium chloride, (CH3)4N+ Cl-

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NITRO-AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

These have the nitro -NO2 group directly attached to the ring e.g.

nitrobenzene, (c) doc b; 1,3-dinitrobenzene, (c) doc b

 

2-methylnitrobenzene or 1-methyl-2-nitrobenzene, (c) doc b

and also other organic nitrogen compounds

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DIAZONIUM SALTS and AZO DYES

Diazonium salts are formed when primary aromatic amines reaction with nitrous acid

The diazonium cation has a nitrogen - nitrogen triple bond system directly attached to the benzene ring e.g.

(1) (c) doc bfrom phenylamine+

(2) (c) doc bfrom 4-methylphenylamine

In alkaline solution these diazonium salts couple with phenols and aromatic amines to form azo dyes which have benzene rings linked with an azo -N=N- bond system e.g.

reacting (1) with phenol gives (c) doc b

reacting (2) with phenylamine gives (c) doc b

and also other organic nitrogen compounds

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SULPHONIC ACIDS

These molecules have a strongly mono-basic acidic group -SO2OH directly attached to the benzene ring e.g.

benzenesulphonic acid,(c) doc b(c) doc b ,(or benzenesulfonic acid)

2-, 3- or 4-methylbenzenesulphonic acid,(c) doc b, (c) doc b,(c) doc b (or ....sulfonic acid)

 

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(spanish) Revisión Química Química Orgánica Una guía resumida a la olecular Estructura y nombre de M-Nomenclatura de los grupos funcionales y serie homóloga en Química Orgánica Ejemplos de grupos funcionales, series homólogas, fórmula general, aparece la fórmula, fórmula desarrollada, fórmula molecular, la fórmula del esqueleto, fórmula estructural, fórmula empírica de las moléculas etc, todos ellos explicados con vínculos a más ejemplos de la estructura y de nombres y pruebas y ecuaciones de reacción, condiciones de reacción y mecanismos * (lithuanian) Doc Brown Chemija peržiūrėjimas Organinė chemija Santrauka vadovas M olecular struktūra ir įvardijimo-Nomenklatūros funkcinių grupių ir Homologinė eilė: Organinė chemija Pavyzdžiai funkcinių grupių, homologinės eilės, bendra formulė, rodoma formulė, grafika formulė, molekulinė formulė, skeleto formulė, struktūrinė formulė, Cheminė sudėtis molekulių ir tt yra visi paaiškino, su nuorodomis į daugiau pavyzdžių struktūra ir įvardijimo ir viktorinos ir reakcijos lygtis, reakcijos sąlygas, ir mechanizmų. Funkcinė grupė yra atomas arba jų deriniai, atomų, kuris suteikia organinės molekulės jo skiriamuosius ir charakteristika chemija. Sąvoka "funkcinė grupė" yra susijęs su serija sąvoka homologinės eilės. Homologinės eilės yra molekulių grupė numatant tą pačią bendrą formulę ir tą pačią funkcinę grupę. Jie pasižymi tokiomis pačiomis fizinėmis ir cheminėmis savybėmis (nors tendencijas, pvz didinant virimo temperatūrą, didėjant anglies atomų grandinės ilgį). Terminai didesnis / mažesnis reiškia didesnį / mažesnį ar daugiau / trumpesnį anglies atomų grandinės. Alkanai , Alkenai , Alkinai , aromatinės medžiagos, ARENES , Halogenoalkanes , Alkoholiai (prim / s / tret), fenoliai , eteriai , Aldehidai , Ketonai , Karboksirūgštys , Acid chloridai , Acid anhidridai , amidai , esteriai , nitrilams , Aminai (prim / tret / SEC), Ketvirtinės amonio druskos , Nitro-aromatinių , diazonio druskos ir dažai , sulfonato (sulfonrūgštis) rūgštys , dar daugiau pavyzdžių, dėl veislės įmanoma, aromatinių junginių ir organinių azoto junginių atskiruose puslapiuose. * (german) Doc Brown's überarbeiten Chemie Organische Chemie Eine Zusammenfassung Leitfaden für die M olecular Struktur und Systematik der Naming-funktionellen Gruppen und homologen Reihe in der Organischen Chemie Beispiele für funktionelle Gruppen, homologe Reihe, allgemeinen Formel, Formel angezeigt, Grafik, Summenformel, Skelett-Formel, Strukturformel, Summenformel der Moleküle etc. sind alle Gleichungen erklärt mit Links zu weiteren Beispielen für die Struktur und Benennung und Quizzes und Reaktion, Reaktionsbedingungen und Mechanismen. Eine funktionelle Gruppe ist ein Atom oder eine Kombination von Atomen, die ein organisches Molekül verleiht seinen unverwechselbaren und charakteristischen Chemie. Eine homologe Reihe ist eine Gruppe von Molekülen mit der gleichen Formel und die gleichen funktionellen Gruppe. Sie haben ähnliche physikalische und chemische Eigenschaften (z. B. wenn auch mit zunehmenden Trends Siedepunkt mit zunehmender Länge der Kohlenstoffkette). Die Begriffe höheren / niedrigeren beziehen sich auf eine größere / kleinere oder länger / kürzer Kohlenstoffkette. Alkane , Alkene , Alkine , Aromaten-Arenen , Halogenoalkanes , Alkohole (prim / sek / tert), Phenole , Ether , Aldehyde , Ketone , Carbonsäuren , Säurechloride , Säureanhydride , Amide , Ester , Nitrile , Amine (Prim / tert / sec), Quartäre Ammoniumsalze , Nitro-Aromaten , Diazoniumsalze und Farbstoffe , Sulfonsäure (Sulfonsäuren) Säuren , und weitere Beispiele, durch die Vielfalt möglich ist, von Aromaten und organische Stickstoffverbindungen auf separaten Seiten. * (indonesian) Doc Brown Merevisi Kimia Kimia Organik Panduan Ringkasan ke olecular Struktur M dan Penamaan-Nomenklatur Golongan Karya dan homolog Seri dalam Kimia Organik Contoh kelompok-kelompok fungsional, seri homolog, rumus umum, ditampilkan formula, rumus grafis, rumus molekul, rumus kerangka, struktur formula, rumus empiris dari molekul lain sebagainya yang dijelaskan dengan link ke lebih banyak contoh struktur dan penamaan dan kuis dan persamaan reaksi, kondisi dan mekanisme reaksi. Sebuah kelompok fungsional adalah atom atau kombinasi dari atom yang memberikan sebuah molekul organik yang khas dan karakteristik sifat kimia. Suatu seri homolog adalah sekelompok molekul dengan rumus umum yang sama dan kelompok fungsional yang sama. Mereka memiliki sifat fisik dan kimia yang mirip (meskipun dengan tren misalnya titik didih meningkat dengan meningkatnya panjang rantai karbon). Istilah yang lebih tinggi / rendah merujuk kepada sebuah atau lebih / lebih pendek karbon / rantai yang lebih kecil yang lebih besar. Alkana , Alkena , Alkuna , Aromatics-arena , Halogenoalkanes , Alkohol (formal / sec / tert), Fenol , Eter , siklik dari aldehida , keton , asam karboksilat , Asam klorida , Asam anhidrida , amida , Ester , Nitril , Amina (formal / tert / sec), garam amonium Kuarter , Nitro-aromatik , garam dan pewarna Diazonium , sulfonat (sulfonat) asam , dan contoh-contoh, karena berbagai kemungkinan, dari Senyawa aromatik dan Senyawa Nitrogen Organik pada halaman Web terpisah. *
DOC'S PICTURES - always travel with my camera! images and notes