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docbelecmdmix3 updated Feb 6th 2008
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ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS and MIXTURES and their separation, CHEMICAL REACTIONS and EQUATIONS

KS3 Science and KS4 Science GCSE-IGCSE Chemistry - Chemistry Revision-Information Notes of some basic ideas and chemical concepts

Part 1 Some important definitions in Chemistry, Elements, Compounds Mixture pictures and Physical & Chemical Changes

Part 2 Methods of Separating Mixtures

Part 3 How to write equations, work out formula and name compounds (this page)

*  EMAIL query?comment  *  Alphabetical list of KEYWORDS for Parts 1-3: atom  *  balancing equations (work your way down the section carefully)  *  centrifuges/centrifuging  *  chemical reaction/change  *  chromatography (paper/thin layer)  *  compound  *  covalency *  crystallisation  *  decanting/decantation  * displayed formula  *  distillation (simple/fractional)  *  element  *  equations  *  evaporation  *  filtration  *  formula  *  impure/pure  *  insoluble  *  ionic equations  *  ionic valency  *  iron-sulphur separation and heating experiment  *  magnet  *  mixture  *  molecule  *  naming compounds and ions  *  particle pictures of elements/compounds/mixtures  *  physical change  *  precipitation  *  products  *  pure substance  *  purification  *  reactants  *  sand/salt separation  *  separating funnel  *  separating mixtures  *  soluble/solution/solvent/solute  *  solvent extraction  *  symbols (for elements, formula, in equations)  *   state symbols  *  valency  * working out formulae  *

Spelling note: sulphur = sulfur, sulphuric acid = sulfuric acid, sulphate = sulfate, sulphite = sulfite, aluminium = aluminum (US)

 

 top index

    THE CONSTRUCTION OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

"How to write and understand chemical equations" (3rd draft)

  • Seven equations are presented, but approached in the following way

  • The individual symbols and formulae are explained

  • The word equation is presented to summarise the change of reactants to products.

  • A balanced 'picture' equation which helps you understand reading formulae and atom counting to balance the equation.

  • The fully written out symbol equation with state symbols (often optional for starter students).

Chemical Symbols and Formula 

  • For any reaction, what you start with are called the reactants, and what you form are called the products.

    • So any chemical equation shows in some way the overall chemical change of  ...

    • REACTANTS ==> PRODUCTS, which can be written in words or symbols/formulae.

  • It is most important you read about formula in an earlier section of this page.

  • Empirical formula and molecular formula are dealt with on another page.

  • In the equations outlined below several things have been deliberately simplified. This is to allow the 'starter' chemistry student to concentrate on understanding formulae and balancing chemical equations. Some teachers may disagree with this approach BUT my simplifications are:

    • The word 'molecule' is sometimes loosely used to mean a 'formula'.

    • The real 3D shape of the 'molecule' and the 'relative size' of the different element atoms is ignored.

    • If the compound is ionic, the ion structure and charge is ignored, its just treated as a 'formula'.

Chemical word equations

  • ==> means the direction of change from reactants == to ==> products

  • No symbols or numbers are used in word equations.

  • Always try to fit all the words neatly lined up from left to right, especially if its a long word equation.

Chemical picture equations and Rules on Balancing Symbol equations

  • Writing the correct symbol or formula for each equation component.

    • Numbers in a formula are written as subscripts after the number of atoms of the element concerned

      • e.g. H2SO4 means 2 H's, 1 S and 4 O's

      • or the subscript number can double, treble etc. a part of the formula

      • e.g. Ca(OH)2 means 1 Ca and 2 OH's (or 2 O's and 2 H's in total)

    • Numbers before a formula double or treble it etc.

      • e.g. 2NaCl means 2 Na's and 2 Cl's in total

      • or 2H2SO4 means 2 x H2SO4 =  4 H's, 2 S's and 8 O's in total

    • NOTE: If the number is 1 itself, by convention, no number is shown in a formula or before a formula.

  • Using numbers if necessary to balance the equation.

  • If all is correct, then the sum of atoms for each element should be the same on both side of the equation arrow .....

    • in other words: atoms of products = atoms of reactants

      • This is a chemical conservation law of atoms and later it may be described as the 'law of conservation of mass.

    • the 7 equations are first presented in 'picture' style and then written out fully with state symbols

    • The individual formulas involved and the word equations will be been presented in the examples below.

  • PRACTICE QUESTIONS - on words and symbol equations (on other web pages)

1. A single symbol means an uncombined single atom of the element,(c) doc b or Fe 1 atom of iron,(c) doc b or S 1 atom of sulphur (2Fe would mean two atoms, 5S would mean five sulphur atoms etc.)

(c) doc b or the formula FeS means one atom of iron is chemically combined with 1 atom of sulphur to form the compound called iron sulphide

iron + sulphur ==> iron sulphide

(c) doc b

  • on average one atom of iron chemically combines with one atom of iron forming one molecule of iron sulphide

  • two elements chemically combining to form a new compound

  • Fe(s) + S(s) ==> FeS(s) 

  • Atom balancing, sum left = sum right: 1Fe + 1S = (1Fe combined with 1S)

  • All the reactants (what you start with) and all the products (what is formed) are all solids in this case.

  • When first learning symbol equations you probably won't use state symbols like (s) at first (see end note).

2. (c) doc b or the formula NaOH means 1 atom of sodium is combined with 1 atom of oxygen and 1 atom of hydrogen to form the compound called sodium hydroxide

(c) doc b or the formula HCl means 1 atom of hydrogen is combined with 1 atom of chlorine to form 1 molecule of the compound called  hydrochloric acid

(c) doc b or the formula NaCl means 1 atom of sodium are combined with 1 atom chlorine to form the compound called sodium chloride

(c) doc b or the formula H2O means 2 atoms of hydrogen are chemically combined with 1 atom of oxygen to form the compound called water.

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water

(c) doc b

  • the reactants are one molecule of sodium hydroxide and one molecule of hydrochloric acid

  • the products are one molecule of sodium chloride and one molecule of water

  • all chemicals involved are compounds

  • NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 

  • atom balancing, sum left = right: (1Na + 1O + 1H) + (1H + 1Cl) = (1Na + 1Cl) + (2H + 1O)

3. (c) doc b or the symbol Mg means 1 atom of the element called magnesium

(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b or 2HCl means two separate molecules of the compound called hydrochloric acid (see example 2)

(c) doc b or the formula MgCl2 means 1 formula of the compound called magnesium chloride, made of one atom of magnesium and two atoms of chlorine.

(c) doc b or the formula H2 means 1 molecule of the element called hydrogen made up of two joined hydrogen atoms

magnesium + hydrochloric acid ==> magnesium chloride + hydrogen

(c) doc b

  • one atom of magnesium reacts with two molecules of hydrochloric acid

  • the products are one molecule of magnesium chloride and one molecule of hydrogen

  • Mg and H-H are elements, H-Cl and Cl-Mg-Cl are compounds

  • Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) 

  • atom balancing, sum left = right: (1Mg) + 2 x (1H + 1Cl) = (1Mg + 2Cl) + (2H)

4. (c) doc b or the formula CuCO3 means one formula of the compound called copper carbonate, made up of one atom of copper is combined with one atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen to form the compound copper carbonate

(c) doc b or the formula H2SO4 means one formula of the compound called sulphuric acid, which is made up of two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen

(c) doc b or the formula CuSO4 means one formula of the compound called copper sulphate which is made up of one atom of copper, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen

H2O (example 2)

(c) doc b or the formula CO2 means one molecule of the compound called carbon dioxide which is a chemical combination of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.

  copper carbonate  + sulphuric acid ==> copper  sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

(c) doc b

  • the reactants are one formula of copper carbonate and one molecule of sulphuric acid

  • the products are one formula of copper sulphate, one molecule of water and one molecule of carbon dioxide

  • all molecules are compounds in this reaction

  • CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

  • balancing sum left = sum right: (1Cu + 1C + 3O) + (2H + 1S + 4O) = (1Cu + 1S + 4O) + (2H + 1O) + (1C + 2O)

 

5. (c) doc b or the formula CH4 means one molecule of the compound called methane which is made of one atom of carbon combined with four atoms of hydrogen

(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b or 2O2 means two separate molecules of the element called oxygen, and each oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen

CO2 (see also example 4)

(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b or 2H2O means two separate molecules of the compound called water (see also example 2)

methane + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water

(c) doc b

Using displayed formula the equation would look like this ...

... in which every individual atom is shown and how it is bonded ('connected') with other atoms in the molecule. All the dashes represent the covalent bonds between the atoms in the molecules.

  • one molecule of methane is completely burned by two molecules of oxygen

  • to form one molecule of carbon dioxide and two molecules of water

  • CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ==> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 

  • atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (1C + 4H) + 2 x (2O) = (1C + 2O) + 2 x (2H + 1O)

6. (c) doc b or the formula Mg(OH)2 is the compound magnesium hydroxide made up of one magnesium, two oxygen and two hydrogen atoms BUT the OH is a particular combination called hydroxide  within a compound, so it is best to think of this compound as a combination of an Mg and two OH's, hence the use of the ( ). The subscripted 2 doubles everything in the brackets.

(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b or 2HNO3 means two separate molecules of the compound nitric acid, each molecule is made up of one hydrogen atom, one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms.

(c) doc b or the formula Mg(NO3)2 is the compound magnesium nitrate, it consists of a magnesium (ion) and two 'nitrates' (ions), each nitrate consists of one nitrogen and three oxygen atoms, again the nitrate is a particular combination of atoms within a compound and hence the use of ( ) again.

(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b or 2H2O meaning two molecules of the compound water (see also examples 2 and 5)

magnesium hydroxide + nitric acid ==> magnesium nitrate + water

(c) doc b

  • one formula of magnesium hydroxide reacts with two molecules of nitric acid to form one formula of magnesium nitrate and two molecules of water (all compounds)

  • Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) ==> Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

  • atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (1Mg + 2O + 2H) + 2 x (1H + 1N + 3O) = (1Mg + 2N + 6O) + 2 x (2H + 1O)

7. (c) doc b or the formula Al2O3 means one formula of the compound called aluminium oxide, made up of two atoms of aluminium Al and three atoms of oxygen O

(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b or 3H2SO4 meaning three molecules of the compound called sulphuric acid (see also example 4)

(c) doc b or the formula Al2(SO4)3 means one formula of the compound called aluminium sulphate, it consists of two aluminium, three sulphur and twelve oxygen atoms BUT the SO4 is a particular grouping called sulphate, so it is best to think of the compound as a combination of two Al's and three SO4's

(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b(c) doc b or 3H2O means three separate molecules of the compound called water (see also examples 2 and 5)

aluminium oxide + sulphuric acid ==> aluminium sulphate + water

(c) doc b

  • one formula of aluminium oxide reacts with three molecules of sulphuric acid

  • to form one formula of aluminium sulphate and three molecules of water

  • note the first use of numbers (3) for the sulphuric acid and water!

  • so picture three of them in your head, otherwise the picture gets a bit big!

  • Al2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) ==> Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O(l) 

  • atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (2Al + 3O) + 3 x (2H + 1S + 4O) = (2Al + 3S + 12O) + 3 x (2H + 1O)

  • NOTE 1: (c) doc b means a reversible reaction, it can be made to go the 'other way' if the conditions are changed. Example:

    • nitrogen + hydrogen (c) doc b ammonia

    • N2(g) + 3H2(g) (c) doc b 2NH3(g) 

    • balancing: 2 nitrogen's and 6 hydrogen's on both sides of equation

   Note 2 on the state symbols X(?) of reactants or products in equations

  • (g) means gas, (l) means liquid, (s) means solid

  • and (aq) means aqueous solution or dissolved in water

  • e.g. carbon dioxide gas CO2(g), liquid water H2O(l), solid sodium chloride 'salt' NaCl(s)

  • and copper sulphate solution CuSO4(aq)
IONIC EQUATIONS  (for higher GCSE and AS students) top index

  • In many reactions only certain ions change their 'chemical state' but other ions remain in exactly the same original physical and chemical state.

  • The ions that do not change physically or chemically are called 'spectator ions'.

  • The ionic equation represents the 'actual' chemical change and omits the spectator ions.

  • Five types of examples of ionic equations are presented below including neutralisation, salt precipitation and redox equations.

  • (1) Acid-base reactions: Acids can be defined as proton donors. A base can be defined as a proton acceptor.

    • e.g. any acid-alkali neutralisation involves the hydroxide ion is (base) and this accepts a proton from an acid.

      • HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) which can be re-written ionically as

      • H+Cl-(aq) + Na+OH-(aq) ==> Na+Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

      • or: H+ + Cl-(aq) + Na+ + OH-(aq) ==> Na+ + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

      • H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ==> H2O(l) which is the ionic equation for neutralisation

      • the spectator ions are chloride Cl- and sodium Na+ 

  • (2) Insoluble salt formation: An insoluble salt is made by mixing two solutions of soluble compounds to form the insoluble compound in a process called 'precipitation'. A precipitation reaction is generally defined as 'the formation of an insoluble solid on mixing two solutions or a bubbling a gas into a solution'.

    • (a) Silver chloride is made by mixing solutions of solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride.

      • silver nitrate + sodium chloride ==> silver chloride + sodium nitrate

      • AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

      • in terms of ions it could be written as

      • Ag+NO3-(aq) + Na+Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + Na+NO3-(aq)

      • or: Ag+ + NO3-(aq) + Na+ + Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + Na+ + NO3-(aq)

      • but the spectator ions are nitrate NO3- and sodium Na+ which do not change at all,

      • so the ionic equation is simply: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s)

        • Note that ionic equations omit ions that do not change there chemical or physical state.

        • In this case the nitrate (NO3-(aq)) and sodium (Na+(aq)) ions do not change physically or chemically and are called spectator ions,

        • BUT the aqueous silver ion, Ag+(aq), combines with the aqueous chloride ion, Cl-(aq), to form the insoluble salt silver chloride, AgCl(s), thereby changing their states both chemically and physically.

    • (b) Lead(II) iodide, a yellow precipitate (insoluble in water!) can be made by mixing lead(II) nitrate solution with e.g. potassium iodide solution.

      • lead(II) nitrate + potassium iodide ==> lead(II) iodide + potassium nitrate

      • Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) ==> PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

      • which can be written as

      • Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ==> PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

      • the ionic equation is: Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ==> PbI2(s)

      • because the spectator ions are nitrate NO3- and potassium K+.

    • (c) Calcium carbonate, a white precipitate, forms on e.g. mixing calcium chloride and sodium carbonate solutions ...

      • calcium chloride + sodium carbonate ==> calcium carbonate + sodium chloride

      • CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) ==> CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

      • Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ==> CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

      • ionically: Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ==> CaCO3(s)

      • because the spectator ions are chloride Cl- and sodium Na+.

    • (d) Barium sulphate, a white precipitate, forms on mixing e.g. barium chloride and dilute sulphuric acid ...

      • barium chloride + sulphuric acid ==> barium sulphate + hydrochloric acid

      • BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)

      • Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ==> BaSO4(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

      • ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)

      • because the spectator ions are chloride Cl- and hydrogen H+.

  • (3) Redox reaction analysis:

    • (a) magnesium + iron(II) sulphate ==> magnesium sulphate + iron

      • Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq) ==> MgSO4(aq) + Fe(s)

      • this is the 'ordinary molecular' equation for a typical metal displacement reaction, but this does not really show what happens in terms of atoms, ions and electrons, so we use ionic equations like the one shown below.

      • Mg(s) + Fe2+SO42-(aq) ==> Mg2+SO42-(aq) + Fe(s)

      • The sulphate ion SO42-(aq) is the spectator ion, because it doesn't change in the reaction and can be omitted from the ionic equation. No electrons show up in the full equations because electrons lost by Mg must equal the electrons gained by Fe.

      • so the ionic-redox equation is

      • Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) ==> Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s)

      • Mg oxidised by electron loss, Fe2+ reduced by electron gain

    • (b) zinc + hydrochloric acid ==> zinc chloride + hydrogen

      • Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

      • Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) ==> Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)

      • the chloride ion Cl- is the spectator ion

      • Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) ==> Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

      • Zinc atoms, Zn, oxidised by electron loss and hydrogen ions, H+, are reduced by electron gain

    • (c) copper + silver nitrate ==> silver + copper(II) nitrate

      • Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) ==> 2Ag + Cu(NO3)2(aq)

      • the nitrate ion NO3- is the spectator ion

      • Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) ==> 2Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq)

      • Cu oxidised by electron loss, Ag+ reduced by electron gain

    • (d) halogen (more reactive) + halide salt (of less reactive halogen) ==> halide salt (of more reactive halogen) + halogen (less reactive)

      • X2(aq) + 2K+Y(aq) ==> 2K+X(aq) + Y2(aq)

      • X2(aq) + 2Y-(aq) ==> 2X-(aq) + Y2(aq)

      • the potassium ion K+ is the spectator ion

      • halogen X is more reactive than halogen Y, F > Cl > Br > I)

      • X is the oxidising agent (electron acceptor, so is reduced)

      • KY or Y- is the reducing agent (electron donor, so is oxidised)

  • (4) Ion Exchange Resins: Ion exchange polymer resin columns hold hydrogen ions or sodium ions. These can be replaced by calcium and magnesium ions when hard water passes down the column. The calcium or magnesium ions are held on the negatively charged resin. The freed hydrogen or sodium ions do not form a scum with soap.

    • e.g. 2[resin]-H+(s) + Ca2+(aq) ==> [resin]-Ca2+[resin]-(s) + 2H+(aq)

    •  or 2[resin]-Na+(s) + Mg2+(aq) ==> [resin]-Mg2+[resin]-(s) + 2Na+(aq) etc.

  • (5) Scum formation with hard water: On mixing hard water with soaps made from the sodium salts of fatty acids, insoluble calcium or magnesium salts of the soap are formed as a grey precipitate ...

    • CaSO4(aq) + 2C17H35COONa(aq) ==> (C17H35COO)2Ca(s for scum!) + Na2SO4(aq)

    • or more simply ionically: Ca2+(aq) + 2C17H35COO-(aq) ==> (C17H35COO-)2Ca2+(s)

    • the spectator ions are SO42- and Na+

 top index

 VALENCY - COMBINING POWER - FORMULA DEDUCTION

  • The valency of an atom or group of atoms is its numerical combining power with other atoms or groups of atoms.

  • The theory behind this, is all about stable electron structures!

    • The combining power or valency is related to the number of outer electrons.

    • You need to consult the page on "Bonding" to get the electronic background.

  • A group of atoms, which is part of a formula, with a definite composition, is sometimes referred to as a radical.

  • In the case of ions, the charge on the ion is its valency or combining power (list below).

  • To work out a formula by combining 'A' with 'B' the rule is:

    • number of 'A' x valency of 'A' = number of 'B' x valency of 'B',

  • However it is easier perhaps? to grasp with ionic compound formulae.

    • In the electrically balanced stable formula, the total positive ionic charge must equal the total negative ionic charge. Example:

    • Aluminium oxide consists of aluminium ions Al3+ and oxide ions O2- 

    • number of Al3+ x charge on Al3+ = number of  O2- x charge on O2- 

    • the simplest numbers are 2 of Al3+ x 3 = 3 of  O2- x 2 (total 6+ balances total 6-)

    • so the simplest whole number formula for aluminium oxide is Al2O3 

table of ions, names and symbols (c) doc bExamples of ionic combining power of ions (table left) valency = numerical charge value. Examples of covalent combining power of atoms (valencies below)

  • Hydrogen  H (1)

  • Chlorine Cl and other halogens (1)

  • Oxygen O and sulphur S (2)

  • Boron B and aluminium Al (3)

  • Nitrogen (3, 4, 5)

  • Carbon C and silicon Si (4)

  • Phosphorus (P 3,5)

 
Examples of working out covalent formulae
'A' (valency) 'B' (valency) deduced formula of A + B
1 of carbon C (4) balances 4 of hydrogen H (1) 1 x 4 = 4 x 1 = CH4 
1 of nitrogen (3)  balances 3 of chlorine Cl (1) 1 x 3 = 3 x 1 = NCl3 
1 of carbon C (4) balances 2 of oxygen O (2) 1 x 4 = 2 x 2 = CO2 

(c) doc b

 The diagram on the left illustrates the three covalent examples above for

methane CH4

nitrogen trichloride NCl3

carbon dioxide CO2
Examples of working out ionic formulae
numerically charge = valency of A or B to deduce the formula, 'molecular' or ionic style and compound name
2 of Na+ balances 1 of O2- because 2 x 1 = 1 x 2 = Na2O or (Na+)2O2-  sodium oxide
1 of Mg2+ balances 2 of Cl- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 = MgCl2 or Mg2+(Cl-)2  magnesium chloride
1 of Fe3+ balances 3 of F- because 1 x 3 = 3 x 1 = FeF3 or   Fe3+(F-)3  iron(III) fluoride
1 of Ca2+ balances 2 of NO3- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 = Ca(NO3)2 or Ca2+(NO3-)2  calcium nitrate
2 of Fe3+ balances 3 of SO42- because 2 x 3 = 3 x 2 = Fe2(SO4)3 or (Fe3+)2(SO42-)3  iron(III) sulphate
KS3-GCSE note on naming compounds

  • When combined with other elements in simple compounds the name of the non-metallic element changes slightly from ...??? to ...ide.

  • Sulphur forms a sulphide (ion S2-), oxygen forms an oxide (ion O2-), fluorine forms a fluoride (ion F-), chlorine forms a chloride (ion Cl-), bromine a bromide (ion Br-) and iodine an iodide (ion I-).

  • The other element at the start of the compound name e.g. hydrogen or a metal like sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, etc. usually remains unchanged in simple compounds at KS3-GCSE level.

  • So typical compound names are, sodium sulphide, hydrogen sulphide, magnesium oxide, potassium fluoride, hydrogen chloride, sodium chloride, calcium bromide, magnesium iodide etc.

  • However, even at GCSE level the complications will arise e.g.

    • (i) Where an element can form two different compounds with different formulae with the same  element there needs to be a way of expressing it in the name as well as in the formula e.g.

      • iron(II) chloride, FeCl2 and iron(III) chloride, FeCl3

      • copper(I) oxide, Cu2O and copper(II) oxide, CuO

      • Hear chlorine has a combining power of 1 (valency 1) and oxygen 2 in both compounds.

      • However, iron can have a valency of 2 or 3 and copper 1 or 2 and these also correspond numerically to the charge on the metal ions in such compounds e.g. Fe2+ and Fe3+, Cu+ and Cu2+.

      • Therefore the 'Roman numerals' number in () gives the valency of the element in that particular compound. At a higher academic level this is known as the oxidation state.

    • (ii) When the non-metal is combined with oxygen to form a negative ion (anion) ion which combines with a positive ion (cation) from hydrogen or a metal, then the end of the 2nd part of the name ends in ...ate or ...ite e.g.

      • NO3 in a compound formula is nitrate e.g. KNO3, potassium nitrate.

      • SO3 in a formula is sulphite, e.g. Na2SO3, sodium sulphite,

      • SO4 is sulphate, e.g. MgSO4, magnesium sulphate,

      • PO4 is phosphate, e.g. Na2HPO4, disodium hydrogen phosphate

top index

ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations  SITE PURPOSE: EDUCATION - online learning or 'self-private-tuition' using revision notes, quizzes, practice SAT/SATs test/tests. KS3 SCIENCE Y7 (Year 7), Y8 (Year 8), Y9 (Year 9) Biology-Chemistry-Physics exams. REVISING at Doc Brown's Chemistry Clinic via HOMEPAGE in secondary school/schools, college/colleges, academy/academies or home self-study and may help with 1st year undergraduate university chemistry courses. Hopefully it will encourage interest and understanding of Chemistry and Earth Science in any country of the world, though the site is written entirely in English. The website is designed to help students/teachers revise, learn or teach the chemistry for English National QCA criteria assessment levels for KS3 SATs Science-biology/chemistry/physics (SAT revision levels 3-5 or 5-7 examinations) for secondary schools and colleges. The site does not support the content of England, Wales or Northern Ireland primary science for KS1 and KS2, nor does it support KS3 English and Mathematics (Maths). The notes should provide some background theory for a coursework assignment or project. BUT please note that my on-line revision notes and quizzes are no substitute for good classroom teaching-lecturing and thorough studying of your own notes and textbooks, practicing past papers and a copy of the syllabus which are readily downloaded from the examination board sites, but I hope here and there they will lend a tutoring hand on some topic, unit, module etc. For final revision you have to be intellectually honest about what you don't know or follow, YOU have to take the stuff to pieces, analyse what you do/do not understand and reconstruct it so it all makes sense in the end. There is no other way, there are no magic secrets on how to revise and learn, its mainly down to hard work and just good old fashioned study and employing teach-yourself strategies without the need for extra tutors and tutoring lessons. I also think there is too much hit and miss revision using past papers (which I do NOT supply) and not enough systematic revision. I also hope it will help teachers in planning lessons and developing schemes of work for science-chemistry. There are no lesson plans on the site but there are plenty of quizzes to incorporate into classroom activities whether photocopied or on electronic whiteboard projector for use as self-tuition-assessment purposes and a variety of teaching and learning styles and the images may be used in Microsoft Word documents and PowerPoint projections. The site seems to be used by a large number of home study tutors, particularly the revision notes. An individual tutor may print out the notes for science-chemistry learning teaching-tuition purposes and for background material for assignments and projects. I have no interest or time in producing WORD.doc or xxxx.pdf files of the notes at the moment. Neither have I time to write up many practical laboratory experiments ('lab'-'labs') at the moment, but the notes contain lots of background information of chemical reactions in terms of observations-balanced equations-reactants-products-theory etc. I also find it difficult to recommend specific exam websites or syllabus textbooks, it depends exactly on what you need, what you have time for, and there are so many of them to choose from and I do not supply past examination papers for classes. The sites resources include revision notes, quizzes and worksheets which provide support for home study or tuition for homework and coursework help e.g. science investigations for any of the key stage three 3 courses indicated, but I do not supply lesson plans. science  Dr W P Brown ks3 10-11-2007 ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations ks3 science SATs examinations

ks4 science examinations e-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision * SITE PURPOSE EDUCATION - online learning or 'self-private-tuition' using revision notes, quizzes, practice tests involving GCSE Science CHEMISTRY in the areas of REVISING only the CHEMISTRY-Earth Science-Radioactivity at Doc Brown's Chemistry Clinic via HOMEPAGE in secondary school/schools, 6th form college/colleges, academy/academies or home self-study. Hopefully it will encourage interest and understanding of Chemistry, Earth Science and Radioactivity in any country of the world, though the site is written entirely in English. The website is designed to help and unofficially support students/teachers revise-learn/teach the chemistry for modular or co-ordinated examination science courses from UK QCA based AQA, OCR (Oxford and Cambridge) Twenty First (21st) Century and Gateway Science, Edexcel 360Science , Nuffield, Salters, Cambridge International (CIE), London International, WJEC, CCEA exams etc. Also, national award assessments-examinations for GCSE-IGCSE-KS4-O level-BTEC-NVQ applied, additional and chemistry national science courses. Also covers, mainly via quizzes the UK National KS3 SATs Science-biology/chemistry/physics (SAT revision levels 3-5 or 5-7) and covers much of the revising, learning and teaching chemistry examinations for the national curriculum for secondary schools and colleges. The site does not support the content of England, Wales or Northern Ireland primary science KS1 or KS2. The notes should also provide some background theory for a coursework assignment or project. BUT please note that my on-line revision notes and quizzes are no substitute for good classroom teaching-lecturing and thorough studying of your own notes and textbooks, practicing past papers and a copy of the syllabus which are readily downloaded from the examination board sites, but I hope here and there they will lend a tutoring hand on some topic, unit, module etc. For final revision you have to be intellectually honest about what you don't know or follow, YOU have to take the stuff to pieces, analyse what you do/do not understand and reconstruct it so it all makes sense in the end. There is no other way, there are no magic secrets on how to revise and learn, its mainly down to hard work and just good old fashioned study and employing teach-yourself strategies without the need for extra tutors and tutoring lessons. I also think there is too much hit and miss revision using past papers (which I do NOT supply) and not enough systematic revision. I also hope it will help teachers in planning lessons and developing schemes of work for science-chemistry. There are no lesson plans on the site but there are plenty of quizzes to incorporate into classroom activities whether photocopied or on electronic whiteboard projector for use as self-tuition-assessment purposes and a variety of teaching and learning styles and the images may be used in Microsoft Word documents and powerpoint projections. The site seems to be used by a large number of home study tutors, particularly the revision notes. An individual tutor may print out the notes for science-chemistry learning teaching-tuition purposes and for background material for assignments and projects. I have no interest or time in producing WORD.doc or xxxx.pdf files of the notes at the moment. Neither have I time to write up many practical laboratory experiments ('lab'-'labs') at the moment, but the notes contain lots of background information of chemical reactions in terms of observations-balanced equations-reactants-products-theory etc. I also find it difficult to recommend specific exam websites or syllabus textbooks, it depends exactly on what you need, what you have time for, and there are so many of them to choose from and I do not supply past examination papers for classes. The sites resources include revision notes, quizzes and worksheets which provide support for home study or tuition for homework and coursework help e.g. science investigations for any of the key stage courses indicated, but I do not supply lesson plans.  Dr W P Brown gcse 10-11-2007 *  ks4 science examinations e-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision *  ks4 science examinations-gcse-igcse chemistry revision

useful alphabetical site indexdoc b's HOMEPAGE and site-map

GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *  GCSE Science Chemistry *

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KS3 Science Quizzes

GCSE KS4 Science-Chemistry

Advanced Level Chemistry

docbelecmdmix3 updated Feb 6th 2008
KS4 SCIENCE - Additional & Applied Chemistry help AQA GCSE Science - Chemistry CCEA GCSE Science - Chemistry Edexcel GCSE 360Science - Chemistry OCR GCSE 21st Century Science Suite - Chemistry  OCR GCSE Gateway Science Suite - Chemistry OCR GCSE Applied Science - Chemistry (double award) WJEC GCSE Science - Chemistry

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